This is the science underlying technological principles and processes in the domain of traditional art and architecture of Vaastu Shāstras. This ancient science of India is designated by the author of this article (Sthapati) as Mayonic science and technology, not only to make it distinct from the contemporary material sciences, but to restore and revalidate the unique spiritual science of a great scientist and technologist called Mayan, who lived in the land, south of the present Kanyakumari, known today as Kumari Continent. This land mass was called நாவலந்தீவு Jambudweepam, during Sangam days. (10,000 BC and beyond).”
The grids with which we design based on Vaastu principles range from 1×1 module to 32×32 modules. An atom can have so many bonds. Of these, we attach greater importance to the “Manduka Pada Vaastu Purusha Mandala” 8×8 modular lattice and the “Paramasaayika Pada Vaastu Purusha Mandala” 9×9 modular lattice, which are commonly used in temples or residences. These base grids can also be selected for a variety of other designs to be used in accordance with the design requirements, a system that is permitted in Vaastu Science to achieve a functionally sound design. Such modifications are not random: following a rhythmic contraction or expansion, they develop in an orderly manner.
At the residence, three types of grids can be used mainly: 7×7, 9×9, 11×11. The shapes are: Form “I” (DANDAKA), Form “L” (LAANGALA – two of Form “I”), Form “U” (MOULIKA – three of Form “I”) and Form “O”, or a square with a blank center (CHATURMUKHA – from four “I” forms). Also seven forms of “I” (SARVATOBHADRA) or ten forms of “I” (VARDHAMANA) …
The DANDAKA “I” form is also very common and well-known here: the front room, the back room and the kitchen in the middle “in which the fire – the heart of the spirit of the building – never goes out”.
Vaastu Purusha Mandala includes a DANDAKA HOUSE in 3 out of 9, which is why BRAHMASTAN is not (only) in the house but in front of it. That is why (for the sake of cleanliness) the restroom behind the house used to be – outside the Mandala.
This DANDAKA-shaped HOUSE thus consists of 3 cubes of the same size, with separate functions placed next to each other, while the cellar below the middle cube (kitchen) and the attic above it physically form a CROSS (of 5 cubes). If we add this cross to a complete cube, i.e. add 4 corners, we get 9 parts.
The process of creation in 2 dimensions is a cross that is given by the Brahma and Soma Sutras – the Divine Threads or Stems.
(The first letter of Runic writing, as far as I know, is “S”, its form is “I”.)
Source: Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India
Source: Vastu-Vaastu
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Key Sources of Research
“Application of Vastupurasamandala in the Indian Temple Architecture: An Analysis of the Nagara Temple Plans of Himachal Pradesh.” (1990).
Thakur, Laxman S..
“Use of Vastu Purush Mandala in Architectural Education.”
Naik, Aniruddha.
INTERANTIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT (2022): n. pag.
“Basic Concepts of Mandala.” (2000).
Shakya, Mila.
“Indian Architectural Theory and Practice: Contemporary Uses of Vastu Vidya.” (1999).
This paper is an attempt to reconsider our current understanding of the role accorded to the mandala within traditional Indian architecture. It is generally held that the mandala-in particular the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala, the mandala associated with vāstu (inhabited or built site)-has played a determining role in the genesis of architectural form in India. Within more popular, and less circumspect, writings, this influence is held to be directly formal; the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala is traditionally drawn within a square grid, and any sign of an orthogonal planning or a grid-like layout is taken to be a sign that the form in question was based upon the mandala. In investigating the foundations of such a belief, this paper reviews two bodies of literature. The first is modern art-historical scholarship, an examination of which shows that the idea of a morphogenetic mandala emerged only recently, and that it was not so much culled from the traditional writing as constructed afresh by art historians such as Kramrisch. The other body of literature examined is that of the traditional writings on architecture, many of which are cited as key sources of evidence for this idea. Here it is argued that there is almost no direct evidence for the use of mandalas in laying out complexes or designing buildings, and that such ideas of the use of mandalas rest on several assumptions that must themselves be questioned.
Revisiting the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in Hindu Temples, and Its Meanings
Kim, Young Jae (Architectural History and Theory University of Pennsylvania)
Received : 2014.01.13
Accepted : 2014.06.10
Published : 2014.06.30
Architectural research
Volume 16 Issue 2 / Pages.45-56 / 2014 / 1229-6163(pISSN) / 2383-5575(eISSN) Architectural Institute of Korea (대한건축학회)
“Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture : The Square Shrines of Buddhist Monasteries in Central Asia after the Fourth Century.”
Kim, Young Jae and Dong-soo Han.
Architectural research 13 (2011): 31-43.
“Tradition and Transformation: Continuity and Ingenuity in the Temples of Karnataka.”
Hardy, Adam.
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 60 (2001): 180-199.
“PARAMETRIZING INDIAN KARNATA-DRAVIDA TEMPLE USING GEOMETRY.” (2017).
Goud, Srushti.
Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture : The Square Shrines of Buddhist Monasteries in Central Asia after the Fourth Century
Young Jae Kim
Dong-soo Han
Tradition and Transformation: Continuity and Ingenuity in the Temples of Karnataka
Adam Hardy
On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition
Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture : The Square Shrines of Buddhist Monasteries in Central Asia after the Fourth Century
Young Jae Kim Dong-soo Han
Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India
M. Meister G. Bhatt Yashaswini Sharma
Measurement and Proportion in Hindu Temple Architecture
M. Meister
On the Development of a Morphology for a Symbolic Architecture: India
M. Meister
Free Vibrations of Thin Shells with Isogeometric Approach
S. J. Lee
Prasada as Palace: Kutina Origins of the Nagara Temple
M. Meister
Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples
M. Meister
Analysis of Temple Plans: Indor
M. Meister
“The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone.”
Tartakov, Gary Michael.
Artibus Asiae 42 (1980): 39.
“History and Theory of Design in Traditional Temple Architecture of India.”
Kaur, Jasmeet, Naveena Verma and Tamma Bhanu Chandra Reddy.
International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research (2024): n. pag.
“Essay on the Architecture of the Hindús.”
Ráz, Rám.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1 (1834): 145 – 146.
Author Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy Editor Michael W. Meister Contributor Michael W. Meister Edition illustrated Publisher Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1995 Original from the University of Michigan Digitized Nov 14, 2007 ISBN 0195638050, 9780195638059
The Silpa Prakasa is an important edition to the existing literature on Indian Silpa texts.” (V.S. Agrawala). This early text on Orrisan Temple architecture (Possibly from the 10th cent. A.D.) describes various temple types of Orissa, but especially a tantric temple termed Vimanamalini with its sub-types Padmagarbha and Kamagarbha. The latter could be identified with the 10th cent. Varahi temple at Caurasi near Konarak. The text goes into great detail of the architecture, the iconography and the symbolism of all the parts of the temple. Its unique contribution lies in the description of yantras or symbolic diagrams underlying the architecture as well as sculpture.
The original author was not only a practicing tantrika, but also an expert architect speaking from experience.
The text was first discovered, edited and translated by Alice Boner with the help of Pandit Sadasiva Ratha Sarma of Puri, and published by Brill (Leiden) in 1966. The present edition is a completely revised version and text translation, with new illustrations, on the basis of palmleaf manuscript, with added Indices.
The edition will be extremely valuable for understanding not only the temple construction but the entire symbolism underlying the unique temples of Orissa.
About the Author:
Alice Boner (1889-1981) who first discovered and translated the Silpa Prakasa, was a Swiss artist and an outstanding scholar on Indian art, especially Orissan temple architecture and sculpture. Her important publications include principles of composition of Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period (Leiden 1962) and New Light on the Sun Temple of Konarka (Varanasi 1972).
Sadasiva Ratha Sarma was a traditional priest of Jagannatha temple, Puri, who was well conversant with the art traditions of Orissa and who could decipher the meaning on the text.
Bettina Baumer is a scholar of Sanskrit, Agama/Tantra, Indian aesthetics and temple architecture of Orissa. She has been professor of Religious Studies in Vienna University and at present she is a Fellow at the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla. Her publications include Vastusutra Upanisad (with Alice Boner and S. R. Sarma), Silparatnakosa (with R.P.Das), editing of Kalatattvakosa, A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of Indian Arts (Vols. I, II, III), translations from Sanskrit into German and three books on Kashmir Saivism in German.
Rajendra Prasad Das is a noted historian of Orissa who has been serving in the Archaeological Survey of India, then Professor of History and Principal in various colleges of Orissa. He has co-authored Alice Boner’s book New Light on the Sun Temple of Konarka.
Sadananda Das is a scholar of Sanskrit with a Ph.D. from the University of Pune. He has been teaching Sanskrit in various European Universities (Berne, Lausanne, Heidelberg) and is at present Research Officer at the Alice Boner Institute, Varanasi.
Preface to the Second Edition
Alice Boner’s pioneering translation of the Silpa Prakasa a unique text in the field of Silpasastras has remained almost unknown in India since it was published in Leiden and was not easily accessible to scholars in India. Besides the book has been out of print since almost 20 years. Therefore a revised edition became a necessity especially in the light of an increasing interest in the ancient texts on architecture and sculpture Vastu and Silpasastra.
A complete revision of the text and translation could be undertaken on the basis of only one illustrated manuscript which was in the possession of the Alice Boner institute Varanasi and which was therefore made the basis for the new edition. Since the other two MMS which Alice Boner used were no longer available the variants given from MS 2 in the printed text are noted as variant readings. The printed text had been heavily edited by Pandits who were more concerned with correct Sanskrit than with the technicalities of architecture and therefore it could not be used. The editorial principal followed now was not to change the peculiar style of a Silpasastra by making it conform to Paninian grammar. Only the most necessary corrections were done in the text.
At is has been stated by editors again and again the language of these texts is grammatically defective but by this the meaning is not affected the Silpa Prakasa invariably uses the form etani bhedani among other faulty. As the text itself and alicen Boner in her introduction makes sufficiently clear the author Ramcandra Mahaptra Kalula Bhattaraka was not a Sanskrit Pandit but was himself an architect. This is reflected in the character of the text. Along with a revision of the Sanskrit text coming closer to the original as given in the MS the translation was also completely revised. In spite of many mistakes in the earlier edition Alice Boner’s intuition regarding the correct meaning supported by Pandit Sadasiva Rath Sarma’s traditional knowledge is surprising. In many cases her doubts could be clarified on a careful new reading of the MS.
Thus in spite of a revised version of text and translation the basic understanding of the meaning remains especially with regard to identifying the temple types described with extant temples of Orissa the most outstanding example being the Varahi temple at Caurasi belonging to the Kamagarbha type called Vimanamalini.
The last forty years have seen much new research and publications on the temple architecture and sculpture of Orissa (see Bibliography). In this light the dating of both the tect and the Varahi temple at Caurasi could be established with greater precision. Both on historical as well as stylistic grounds this has resulted in an earlier dating of text and temple. The temple is now dated around the early part of the 10th century.
The question remains whether the author of the Silpa Prakasa was also involved in the building of this temple which he describes in great detail and with evident love. His attachment to this temple (and other of its kind which are not extant now) is also related to the fact of his religious affiliation to the Kaula Sampradaya and to the Tantric forms of the Goddess, Bhattarika as his name itself expresses.
Whatever may be the answer to this question the Silpa Prakasa constitutes an important testimony to the Tantric tradition of Orissa and their architectural and sculptural expressions. Alice Boner in her introduction goes into the importance of Yantras described in the text both in the architectural sense of ground plan and in the sense as symbolic ritual and compositional components of Tantra besides Mantra and Mudra they assume here their proper role as the abstract visual form of the Divine. In the much later text of Orissa Silparatnakosa it has been clearly shown that the Rajarani temple of Bhubanesvar (which is dated about a century later at 1025 A.D) is not only based on a ground plan of the Sriyantra. This text shows that at later as the 17th century this Tantric tradition was alive in Orissa not so much in the construction of temple but in their interpretation and ritual use.
This only confirms the earlier insights of the Silpa Prakasa. But the authority on which the text bases its tradition is the Saudhikagama an encyclopaedic text on both secular and religious architecture which therefore must predate the 10th century. This text has been edited and is in the process of translation and publication. This will show the continuity of the Tantric tradition form at least the 9th to the 17th century in Orissa.
Preface to the First Edition
This Silpa Prakasa is an important addition to the existing literature on Indian Silpa text. Four copies on palm leaf of this work are known two discovered in Orissa and two in Andharadesa as detailed in the introduction. Three were exhibited at the 26th international congress of Orientalists in New Delhi in January 1964. There they were examined by scholars and experts and found to be genuine and there cannot be any doubt about the authenticity of this unique text. This work has a character different from other Sanskrit works on Temple architecture. In that it concentrates on one particular temple type and gives a detailed description of its architecture illustrated is one of copies MS.2 with drawings of the component parts. This illustrated manuscript is particularly valuable because it is unparalleled in the whole range of Sanskrit Silpa Sastra literature found until now. It is the work of a master Architect who shows his professional skill in the detailed description contained in the text.
Miss Alice Boner and Pandita Sadasiva Rath Sarma the discover of three of these texts have fulfilled their obligation of making a critical edition and of preparing an English translation of the text with a detailed introduction and historical notes. A very useful illustrated glossary of technical terms is attached at the end. The two authors are to be felicitated on the labor of lover which they bestowed on this self imposed task.
The author of this text who gives his name a Ramacandra Kaula Bhattaraka was an Orissa architect living in a Tantric village on the banks of the Musali river and enjoying the patronage of one Raja Viravarman of Airavata Mandala. As a follower of the Kaulacara doctrine he worshipped Jagannatha under the name of Daksina Kalika. He frequently mentions the Saudhikagama as the source of his knowledge and his authority. This seems to refer to a Tantric school of temple architecture of which not much is known to day and on which this text gives valuable information.
The Saudhikagama was apparently based on Tantric doctrines and the Silpa Prakasa is entirely imbued with this doctrine. The word Saudha Seems here to be taken in the sense of temple or shrine and the title Saudhika seems to correspond to the title Salata in Saurastra which means a stone worker.
The text begins with an invocation to Visvakarman and Yantrakalika as the presiding deities of all temple building and throughout the text the practice is followed of depositing and consecrating yantras in the foundations and below various parts of the temple as well as under the images of deities. This is a disctinctive characteristic of Tantric traditions. In other Silpa Sastra texts as for Instance in Thakura Pheru’s Vastusastra which in the general plan of topics is very similar to the Silpa Prakasa there is no mention of any Yantra consecrated below the temple. These is mention only of the Sesanaga cakra, which however occurs also in the Silpa Prakasa under the name of Nagabandha. For the construction of temples the author also uses the term Pradadmandana which is the title of Rajasthani Silpa text by Sutradhara Mandana a very appropriate expression still current all over northern Indian to denote the complete operation of planning and building a house or a temple.
A distinctive feature however of the Silpa Prakasa is the method followed in the outlay of the ground plan of temple and Mukhasata starting from the centre of the garbhagrha and growing outwards in geometrical proportions based on units of measurement underlying the garbhagrha. Under the garbhagrha a Yogini Yantra has to be consecrated which also does not occur in other Silpa Sastras.
The Orissa temples have all one characteristic in common in that they are divided into vertical sections running from the base to the top of the Sikhara and are called rathas or pagas. These are separated from one another by deep chases called khandis in Oriya and Visrantishala in Sanskrit which would correspond to what is Rajasthani architecture is called salilantra. In front of the entrance of temple and mukhasala there are invariably round steps called nandavarata which occur also in shrines and stupas of South India and Ceylon and they are called moon stones.
The doorframes of temples have since Gupta and post Gupta times been carved with various bands of decorative friezes. Varaha Mihira in his Brhat Samhita goes into the details of these decorations such as of full vessels of patravalli and of love scenes. He also mentions the figures of pratiharas in the lower quarter of the door jambs all features which actually appear on the doorways of the famous Devagarh and Dahaparbatiya temples. The Silpa Prakasa retains some of the older motifs and adds new ones. At the base of the doorjambs the Pratiharas are now called Dvarapalas and are sometimes conceived as furious or grotesque figures of Pramathas and Ganas the dwarfish sons of Kubera. They are sometimes also represented with tiger or lion faces as those on the temples of Ramacandi and alaka padma in Puri.
In those forms they were called Bhairavas and were supposed to ward off and to frighten away all evil influences from the temple.
In the oldest temples we find also Nagarajas with full water vessels flanking the doorway as auspicious and treasure bringing symbols. Much attention was paid in all brahmanical temples to the decorations of these doorframes, And besides the various vertical bands the horizontal lintel always bore the image of Laksmi as a sign of auspiciousness or of a divinity which had some relationship with the divinity installed in the shrine. The goddess Laksmi which could be a general symbol of auspicious or of a divinity which had some relationship with the divinity installed in the shrine. The goddess Laksmi which could be a general symbol of auspiciousness or the distinctive sign of a visnu temple had its correspondence in the figure of Lalatabimba in Rajasthani temples. In Siva temples there may be Ganesa or the Marriage of Siva and Parvati or Lakulisa on the lintel. The silpa Prakasa mentions two types of Laksmis Gaja Laksmi and Subha Laksmi the former having the cloud elephants above her head and the latter having them as pedestal figures.
The Navagraha stone above the door lintel was not known is Gupta temples such as at Devagarh and Dahaparbatiya but came into use in early medieval temples as testified by the Silpa Prakasa.
Another very important feature of medieval temple architecture especially in Orissa was the Vajramastaka of which the Silpa Prakasa gives a detailed technical. It began to emerge in the later Gupta Period as a round gavaksa window dominated or not by a lion face and was appropriately called grasa or Kirti mukha the latter term being derived from the sun windows or openings of a caitya hall rock excavation. The round window with a lion head on top on the face of cave shrines was gradually conventionalized into a decorative motif applied to the front of temples.
The Silpa Prakasa has given this motif the appropriate name of Vajramastaka. In the Vajra doctrine prevalent then in the Tantric schools, the Vajra denoted diamond-like solidity which could not be fractured even by lightning. This motif was placed on the front of the Sikhara in conspicuous dimensions, but also on the base of-temples and door-jambs in smaller size. This motif variously called vajrãñga or vajramastaka could also be placed on the base or top of pillars.
As many other decorative and symbolic motifs of earliest Indian art have come down to medieval times, putting on a new complexion, the ancient tree-and-woman motif is reappearing here in the gelaba-nari, in which beautiful female figures are entwined with creepers, and the love- couples hanging from the ancient kalpa-vrksas (wish-fulfilling trees) are reappearing here as mithunas and keli-bandhas. The Silpa Prakasa also mentions figures of Rama and Krsna on the door-jambs, which in Gupta art (Deogarh Temple) appear on the temple-base. The rangani flowers mentioned in the Silpa Prakasa correspond to the four-petalled mallika flower on Gupta door-ways and the jalapatra motif of the Silpa Prakasa, where semicircular leaves are superimposed in a vertical band is very similar to the srivrka motif in Gupta art, produced by superimposed palm leaf motifs. While other Silpa Sastras take a bird’s eye view of the architecture of various regions and times, the author of the Silpa Prakasa limits himself strictly to his own time and place, although he fully acknowledges the authority of older scriptures.
The very word kirti, which originally meant a rock-excavation or a caitya-hall, as in the Traikutaka inscription of 493 A.D., is used here in the sense of temple.
The ancient motif of the Salabhanjika carved on the toranas of Buddhist stüpas returns in yet another way on medieval temples. In the Silpa Prakasa the graceful female figures distributed in great profusion on the temple-wall are called Alasa kanyas, in the plural Alasa-bandha or Nari-banadha.
This Alasa kanya motif is a great favourite with the author of the Silpa Prakasa and he recommends its use on numerous places of the vimäna and the mukhasala. He even goes so far as to say, that a temple shorn of this type of decoration will remain without interest and bear no fruit (1.393). He enumerates 16 types of female figures, who bear different names according to their features, poses and emotions.
In other Silpa Sastra texts the lists of such figures are even larger. In the Saurastra tradition, 32 types of what is called there Nataka-stri are given. A few figures only are common in the two lists, although even their names differ. What in the Silpa Prakasa is called Alasi, is Lilavati in Saurastra. What is Darpana in the Silpa Prakasa becomes Vidhicita, and what is Matrmurti becomes Putravallabhi in Saurastra, and Gunthana in the Silpa Prakãa becomes Manohamsa there. In Rãjasthni tradition they are called Preksanikas (derived from Preksana or dramatic show) owing to their often assuming dramatic poses.
After having described the mukhasala of his temple in the first part of this text the author proceeds to describe the vimana in the second part. He first gives a short description of 12 types of temples, which he says are in the tradition of Vivakarman, although their list is evidently confined to the types found in Orissa. Other texts like the recently published text Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana, compiled by H. Daniel Smith, or the i1pa-Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara Mulajibhai contain far larger lists. One of the temples described in the Silpa Prakasa is particularly noteworthy, because it bears a Buddhist name, and although being a Hindu temple points back to the Buddhist tradition, which prevailed in Orissa down to the 12th Cent. A.D. This temple has a rather peculiar form, since it has secondary spires attached to the central spire, somewhat in the way as they are used in Rajasthan under the name of Srñgas or Urusrngas. The followers of the Saudhikagama call this type of temple the Manjus’ri. Then the Silpa Prakasa proceeds to explain in minute detail all elements of the vitnãna, from the pancakarma to the Jangha, the konaka, the anartha and anuraha and the raha, with all their structural and ornamental elements. In the chapter on the vimana the author also makes a cogent and explicit defence of the amorous sculpture. Its style is pure and attains to philosophical heights while frankly declaring that these motifs are in accordance with Kaulacara rites. These sculpture are said to be based on the Kamakala Yantra which is the secret of the Kaulacaras and is represented as a Siva Lingam surrounded by 16 yonis with the names of 16 Saktis and surrounded by a ring of 8 yogins. This is the most important and most sacred decoration of the vimana’s outer parts. The author makes an interesting distinction between the Keli bandha and the Mithuna bandhas the former ones denoting mere love play while the latter may depict Viracara rites or sexual union.
Another feature upon which the author lays great stress is the lion figure and he says that without lions adorning every place the monument would lose all its significance. Four types of lions are prescribed according to the place where they stand. They Viraja lion standing on his hind legs and turning backwards in what elsewhere is called the simhavalokana attitude is mostly used for the khandis between the pagas. The jagrata or seated lion with a raised paw known elsewhere as ksubhyamna or khumman simha is best on top of the roof. The Udyata or jumping lion called elsewhere Jhampa simha is mostly for the front of the Sikhara and the Gajakranta lion overpowering an elephant called elsewhere Simhakunjara is for the front of the sikhara as well as for the front of portals.
Two types of kalasas are also mentioned the one in the form of a yupa or sacrificial post for Devi temple and the other in the form of a full water vessel for Siva or Visnu temples.
This important treatise on Silpa Sastra ends with glowing tributes to the merit of building temples and says that this is equal to the Rajasuya or to a Sona Sacrifice. It also eulogizes the Silpa Sastras descended from Visvakarman which have kept the torch of the science of Silpa burning through the ages.
Introduction
The Silpa Prakãsa occupies, among Silpa Sastras, a special and unique position. The hitherto known texts on Vastu-vidya, and what parts of the Puranas have been dedicated to this subject, are theoretical treatises, whose authorship is mostly attributed to legendary and mythical personalities of Rsis and gods. They are bigger or smaller compendia of general principles and rules of architecture and all allied arts. They cover a vast number of subjects, a vast number of art-forms spread over the length and breadth of India, and even considerable time-perspectives. On critical analysis they appear to be collective works, built up of successive stratifications, of accretions, elaborations and modifications undergone in the course of many centuries. Since they give elaborate classifications and descriptions of all types of temples, towns, forts, houses, gateways, wells etc., of innumerable types of imagery, with theft ornaments and attributes, they have come down to us as veritable store-houses for the study and preservation of art-forms that have been in use since the most ancient times. They form the broad historical foundation on which it was possible to retrace the development of Indian art and architecture from its very beginnings.
The Silpa Sastra presented in this volume is a different type of work. It does not claim divine authorship, but is avowedly written by a historical person, of whom we learn the name, ancestry, religious profession and residence. Since this person happens to be an architect by profession, speaking about his own work, it gives the book from the very outset a complexion of specialized competence. The author concentrates all his efforts on the elaborate description of one particular type of tãntric temple and on the method of its construction. Whatever descriptions there are of a general character appear only in the margin, as a sort of framework to the central subject of the book. They are set at the beginning only of each one of the two parts, into which the book is divided, and almost give the impression of being mere concessions to the generally accepted procedure of presenting a Silpa Sãstra text. This is especially so in the case of the introductory paragraphs to the second chapter, which have no necessary connection with the avowed subject of the book, and appear more like later accretions, added by some zealous copyist who was eager to improve upon his model. They contain brief accounts of temple-forms, such as the Manjusri, the Mahameru and the Kailasa, which most probably are of a later date than the actual subject of the book. Moreover, these cryptic references to other temple-forms do not show in the least the same degree of competence as the rest of the book and are not everywhere intelligible. The same can be said of the short notes on the various forms of konakas, anarthas, anurahas and rams used on these rekha temples, which therefore remain of rather uncertain identification. Although we have done our best to elicit their meaning, our rendering of these parts, from sloka 3 to 44 and from 106 to 151 of the second Prakasa can in consequence not be considered as anything but tentative.
When in these preliminaries our author, however, touches on tãntric forms of temples, like the Rathayukta, the Vaitala and the Hemakuta represented by tile Parauramevara, the Vaitäl and the Gauri temples of Bhubaneswar, the exposition, although brief, becomes perfectly lucid and clear. Not to speak of the main subject of the book, the two Vadabhi types of temples, the Padmagarbha and the Kamagarbha, which are described very systematically and with minutest care of details.
Apart from these excursions into extraneous subjects, the text is of one single piece, as it would necessarily be, when written by a single person and centering around one single theme. If it is thus more limited in scope than other Silpa texts, it has, on the other hand, the unique distinction of introducing the reader right into the very workshop of an architect, where he will not hear disquisitions f theoreticians, or compilers, but the practical instructions of a professional, of a Master-architect, who is initiating and guiding his disciples and coworkers. He has the privilege of hearing froth the Master’s own lips, how every part of the temple has to be fashioned, its proportions in respect to other parts, and the proportions of all parts with respect to the whole. He is enabled to enter into the very actuality of building operations, being guided systematically from the lay-out of the ground plan and the excavation of the foundations to the elevation of the walls, the Sikhara and the roofing. Over and above all, he has the privilege of receiving, together with the disciples, initiation into a number of secrets, religious and professional, connected with the art of temple-building. The Master, being avowedly a Kaulacara, attaches very great importance to the symbolical yantras that have to be placed and consecrated below every part of the temple. Similarly he insists, that all images of divinities that adorn the temple have to be composed on yantras and have to be visualized by the sculptors according to their dhyanas. Even for merely decorative motifs he gives compositional diagrams.
Thus the Silpa Prakasa has the rare merit of providing practical instruction into the art of temple building on all levels on the religious and ritualistic as well as on the architectural and technical plane. This gives a feeling that with an adequate disposition of mind and heart and the availability of trained workers it would be possible even today to build a temple according to its directions.
The text of the Silpa Prakasa exists as far as we know today in four copies only. There of these were consulted for working out the present translation. The existence of the fourth copy name to our knowledge only recently and therefore could not be included in our studies. It is in the custody of Sri Goswami Arisandha Math, Nimapada.
CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition by Bettina Baumer
V-VI
Historical Note to the Dating of the Text by Rajendra Prasad Das
VII
Preface to the First Edition by V.S.Agrawala
IX-XIV
Acknowledgements
XV
List of Figures
XIX
Introduction by Alice Boner
1-41
SILPA PRAKASA: TEXT & TRANSLATION
Detailed Contents of the Text
43-47
First Prakasa
48-191
Second Prakasa
192-381
Notes
383-393
Glossary to Technical Terms
395-425
Bibliography
427-429
Sloka Index
431-450
General Index
451-456
List of Plates
467-471
Plates
Vastusutra: Upanishad – The Essence of Form in Sacred Art
by Alice Boner, Sadasiva Rath Sarma, Bettina Baumer
1 North Indian parallels can probably be found for many of the ideas and customs to be discussed below. It just happens that the author is more familiar with the south and so has drawn most of her material from there. Many of the concepts to be outlined, however, are probably familiar throughout.
2 A belief in the possibility of a complete merger of the devotee with the divine is the ‘monist’ position. The extent to which actual merger is possible, however, is not the question here. Getting as close as possible is what is important. Stated this way, the problem is equally salient for Hindus of ‘dualist’ persuasion.
3 The houses of orthodox Brahmin families, furthermore, often have a great open passage stretching through them from east to west intended to maximize this bene ficial influence. In urban areas where this is not always possible, mirrors are some times used to give the substitute visual impression of such a corridor when none, in fact, exists.
4 The great shrine dedicated to Murugan at Palani, for example.
5 An ascetic will sometimes be buried in a seated position. When this is done his body is seated facing the north.
6 Indeed, temples have ‘horoscopes’ too. The nine planets are always represented at a special square shrine inside the whole. Their varying configurations are said to record their alignment at the time of that particular temple’s construction. (See subscript s., Diagram 9.)
7 I have several examples of this extreme response (some fantacized, some attempt ed) from my field notes.
8 All eating, of course, is done directly with the hand.
9 We would call this ‘clockwise’ movement in English, but in India it is described as ‘keeping the object of respect to the right’, a point clarified for me by Dr Veena Das.
10 Surprisingly, the major agricultural caste of the Coimbatore district (the Kavun tar) is an exception. In their wedding ritual the bride must sit on the groom’s right.
11 The squares simply become multiplied for large designs. However, some drawings ‘represent’ specific things such as temple carts or ritual lamps. Under these circum stances it is permissible to break out of the basic format.
12 This basic ritual form is probably not only pan-Hindu but also pan-Indo- European. Thus, the quincunx was once used as a format for planting a grove of sacred trees in Europe. The same structural form also serves as a cardinal principle of church architecture. A more extended discussion of 4-5 and 8-9 as numbers that delimit the sacred in Hindu art and textual tradition can be found in Bosch (1960: 84-89)
13 Some designs are made by connecting the original dots rather than by encircling them.
14 For example, the popular mantra or sacred verse addressed to him is referred to as ‘the five syllables’ chant. It is: na-ma-ci-vā-ya.
15 When Siva’s five-headed form is visually depicted in sculpture, four of his heads actually face outwards from the neck towards the four cardinal points while the fifth sits on top of the others and looks upwards. In early wall reliefs the upward looking face was shown on top of three others. The final head was imagined to face into the wall and was hence not visible. Interestingly, however, after about the third century A.D. the upward looking face was eliminated and said to be invisible. Thus the famous statue of Siva in the Elephanta Caves is three-headed, but is said to depict the five-headed form (Agrawala 1963: 52).
16 He is also known as Skanda, Karttikeya or Subramāniam. Murugan is an extre mely popular god in the south of India, though not particularly well-known in the north.
17 That is, the wedding ritual of the dominant Kavuntar community.
18 A popular description appears in the Visnu Purāna, where Brahmā is said to have made sheep from his breast, goats from his mouth, cows from his stomach and sides, horses from his feet, etc. (O’Flaherty 1975: 45). But this seems to be a late adoption. Earlier myths describe Brahmā in more abstract terms, as a Universal Soul, while the act of creation is attributed to a more concrete being named Prajāpati or Puruşa. In these earlier texts the idea of a great sacrifice and subsequent dismemberment is quite explicit (Rg Veda,10.90 and Satapatha Brahmana, Vol. III, pp. 303-7). In later periods, however, the creator’s role is more that of transformer, maker or insemi nator. Interestingly, the ritual described here bears its strongest affinity to the earlier forms of this Brahmā-Prajāpati-Puruşa complex.
19 This idea is explicitly endorsed by Eggeling, editor of the English translation of the Satapatha Brahmana(Vol. IV, p. xv),
20 All the necessary details for this ‘reconstruction’ are common knowledge to priests, but the explicit reference to a prone body is my own idea. Support can perhaps be found for this interpretation in Volwashen (1969: 45), where he mentions that something similar existed in Aryan sacrificial ritual. There a human being was represented on the altar by the arrangement of sacrificial vessels. The ‘five faces’ of Siva are also represented in this ritual by sacred vessels.
21 This idea fits well with what Levi-Strauss has argued is the basic purpose of all ritual activity, e.g., to reunite what has become differentiated into a new and unparti tioned whole (Levi-Strauss 1971: 596-611). Although I would be hesitant to agree that all rituals are of this type, the above example certainly seems to suggest that some are.
22 Left-overs have a great significance in Hindu ritual more generally. They are usually food offerings of which god is said to have ‘eaten’ the substance but left-overs are considered sacred and are later eaten by devotees.
23 In English these are usually referred to as ‘lunar mansions’.
24 In theory the god’s own body is divided into parts for this and each part is then personified in a fashion that enables it to render homage to the whole. The simile used is that of a wick being held to an already existing flame so that the flame itself is duplicated (Somasambhupaddhati).
25 More elaborate representations, however, are possible in which there are several rows or ‘layers’ of seats. Interestingly, in architectural, as opposed to strictly ritual tradition, the twenty-seven star groups become augmented to thirty-two. Presumably thirty-two makes a much neater subdivision of the sides of a square (nine on each edge) than does the former number. Volwashen (1969: 45), Kramrisch (1946: 31-32), and the editors of the Silpa Prakāsa (p. xxxiii) all mention the idea that the thirty-two segments of the circumference represent lunar mansions. To understand how twenty- seven can so easily become thirty-two see Diagram 5. Note also that the square con taining Vastu’s folded body, shown earlier, has its border subdivided into thirty-two units.
26 The diagram comes from Somasambhupaddhati, Vol. 2, p. 334, and chart 1. A very similar version is given in the Mrgendrāgama, pp. 126-27, and I also collected a diagram showing the same layout from a local priest.
27 Some Indian sea turtl es indeed do have 27 segments marked along the outer rim of their shells and one variety, the caretta caretta gigas, also has an inner ring marked by twelve subdivisions. The two rings overlap by one segment, that nearest the turtle’s head. Together, these two make a lovely model of the basic astronomical system which of course has 27 lunar mansions and 12 solar houses. Since this parti cular turtle is the biggest variety found in the Indian ocean and is noted for its savage biting (it is called the nai amai or ‘dog turtle’ in Tamil) it may indeed be the original ‘natural model’ on which both the astronomical scheme and the myth were able to build. For a further description of this turtle see Deraniyagala (1939: 164-66),
28 This can be found in many astrological handbooks, for example Anantapati ni Cutta Tirukkanita Pancānkam, 1972, p. 96. I have added the directions of space through discussion with Indian astrologers personally. However, the same informa tion is given in Diehl (1956:61), who cites a Tamil astrological handbook as his source. The figure in the centre is my own. In south Indian tradition the zodiac signs are laid out clockwise. In north Indian and European culture, however, the general tradition seems to be to make them go counterclockwise. Either would be observa tionally correct in the sense that the zodiac belt itself appears to rotate slowly clock wise, or (equivalently) the planets, particularly the sun and moon, appear to displace themselves along this belt gradually, anticlockwise. The European list of body parts comes from MacNeice (1964: 126 and 276). The Indian ones are taken from Tecikar (n.d.: 33).
29 These guardians are mentioned in some of the most important popular religious texts of Tamil Nadu. Commonly they are seen as threatened by demonic forces (acuras) so that the social life of the community becomes endangered (La Legende de Skanda, p. 62, and La Legende des Jeux de Civa, story 28). Sometimes these guardians become associated with Siva’s eight lingams (La Legende des Jeux, story 56). The full list of names is found in the Manaiyāti Cāstiram. A convenient reference in English is Gopinatha Rao (1916, Vol. I, pt. 2: 515). The glosses in brackets are my own, but are common knowledge, except perhaps for Indra’s associations as a solar deity (extensive evidence is provided by Bhattacharji 1970) and for Niruti as earth. I derive the latter idea from Niruti’s association with a hole or low spot on the earth and also with the processes of decay in general.
30 This reversal of the European perspective finds collaboration in another opposi tion common to both, namely the male/female pair. In Indian tradition, as in the European, female qualities are most often associated with the element earth, and male qualities with the wind or ether. But the European view considers the male to be the more ‘active’ of the two, while a Hindu associates the female with the dynamic principle (Sakti), and the male with the idea of unchanging essence (purusa ).
31 The accompanying diagram is taken from Kambar (1969), but the interpretation is my own. Since Kambar does not include the compass directions in his description I have taken the latter from a description of the traditional stage and audience in Boner (1972: 213-14).
32 A good example would be the old sections of the city of Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Here a great and almost square temple is to be found surrounded by square streets pierced by arteries oriented in the four directions. In addition, these main streets forming squares around the Madurai Minaksi temple are named after three impor tant festival months, Cittirai (April-May), Āvani (September-October) and Māci (February-March) during which the great chariots of the sacred shrine are pulled along these routes. Here the city space becomes identified not only with the sacred- ness of the square itself, but also with time and with the festival cycle. A similar description can be found in Volwashen (1969: 46 and 56-57).
33 This is reminiscent of the ‘light in darkness’ theme associated with some festival rituals that bear a link to pregnancy.
34 Examples of the ‘burial alive’ of ascetics can be found in Banninga (1913: 1281) and Srinivas (1952: 87-88).
35 This ceremony, called Kumbavicekam, is too complex to be described here in any detail.
36 The ritual is very common and can be used to bring any image ‘to life’.
37 This particular diagram is copied with minor modifications) from Vamikanathan (1971: 17 and 20). Kramrisch (1946, Vol 1: 266 and 359) and Curtis (1973: 49) describe a similar symbolism,
38 Indeed. in the kumpavicekam ceremony of ‘renewing’ the powers of a divine image (described in the text) one of the final steps is showing the god a reflection of itself in a mirror.
39 A similar theme has been reported from the island of Malaita in the British Solomons (Maranda 1970).
References
Agrawala, Vasudeva S. 1963. The matsya purana, a study. Varanasi : All India Kashiraj Trust.
Malamoud, Charles. 1975. Cuire le mond. Purusārtha: recherches de sciences sociales sur L’Asie du Sud. Paris: Centre de L’Inde et de L’Asie du Sud, pp. 91-136.
Maranda, Pierre and Elli Kongas Maranda . 1970. Le Crane et L’Uterus: Deux Theoremes Nord-Malaitains. J. Pouillon and P. Maranda, eds. Echanges et Communications The Hague: Mouton .
The Mayamata is a Vastusastra, i.e. a treatise on dwelling and as such it deals with all the facets of gods and mens dwellings, from the choice of the site to the iconography of the temple walls. It contains numerous and precise descriptions of villages and towns as well as of the temples, houses, mansions and palaces. It gives indications for the selection of a proper orientation, right dimensions, and of appropriate materials. It intends to be a manual for the architect and a guidebook for the layman. Well-thought of by traditional architects (sthapatis) of South India, the treatise is of great interest at a time when technical traditions, in all fields, are being scrutinized for their possible modern application.
The present bilingual edition prepared by Dr. Bruno Dagens, contains critically edited Sanskrit text, which is an improvement over the earlier edition by the same scholar and published as No.40 of Publications de I’Institute Francais d’Indologie, Pondicherry. The English translation, also published earlier, has now been revised with copious notes. The usefulness of the edition has been further enhanced by adding an analytical table of contents and a comprehensive glossary.
About the Author
Dr. Bruno Dagens (b. 1953) is an eminent Sanskritist and archaeologist. He is a member of the Ecole Francais d’Estreme-Orient. Dr. Dagens taught Sanskrit at the University of Louvain (Belgium) and did archaeological research in Afghanistan and Cambodia. He also worked, since 1977, at the Institute Francais d’Indologie, Pondicherry for quite a few years.
Besides articles and research papers on the Archaeology and Iconography of monuments in Afghanistan and Cambodia, two earlier editions of the Mayamata and one edition of the Saivagamaparibhasamanjari (a compendium of Saiva doctrines and rituals), Dr. Dagens has authored Architecture in the Ajitagama and the Rauravagama (Sitaram Bharatia Institute of Scientific Research, New Delhi, 1984).
Introduction
The body of Sanskrit literature dealing with architecture and iconography is voluminous, even if scattered and insufficiently surveyed and it is matched by a vernacular literature, more scattered and less known. It comprises, first of all, independent works which can be classified under the general heading of “technical treatises” (silpaSastra) or under the more precise one of “treatises on dwelling” (vastuSastra) or “treatises on dwellings” (vastuSastra) The scope of these works, and that of the domain they cover, varies considerably and that goes for the comprehensive treatises as much as for those which confine themselves to limited subjects, such as iconography or astrological points bearing upon the founding and the construction of a house. There are few specialized works of importance in this category even so, architecture and iconography being more often dealt with in various works, whether more or less ambitious encyclopaedias or treatises which concentrate upon areas where architecture and iconography are involved. Some of the main purana or upapurana are to be found in this category (e.g. Matsyapurana, Agnipurana, Visnudbarmottarapurana … ) along with encyclopaedias of royal inspiration (e.g. Manasollasa of Somesvara, Samaranganasutradbara of Bhoja … ) and the Saivite and Vaisnavite agama of various persuasions, as well as the Grbyasutra. the Arthasastra and the Brhatsamhita. These types of works are just those in which the material is most abundant but most scattered; it should be added that a number of small independent treatises are nothing more than extracts from much larger works and, as well, that it is hard to be sure whether the Purvakamikagama has borrowed from the Mayamata the very great number of passages common to both texts or whether the reverse is the case (see below).
That the dispersion is also historical and geographical only complicates the problem still further: the architecture and iconography, as they appear in a given work, are but the reflection of what was in existence during the time of its drafting in the region where that was done; significant in relation to the described forms, this factor is also apparent in the technical vocabulary which is always more or less marked by regional usage, as well as by borrowings from the vernacular. Then, there is the sectarian bias, whether stressed or not and very apparent in the iconography and also, even if to a lesser degree, in complex architectural forms, if not in their elements envisaged separately.” The pretension to universality of many of these texts does nothing to conceal this phenomenon, and whether the regional and sectorian features are more or less emphasized, they are still, usually, obvious. It must also be added that the Indian or, more precisely, the Hindu koine, is so much the fruit of such a mixture of regional and unitarian trends that each author, or school, may legitimately imagine that its day-to-day reality is nothing but an accurate reflection of the whole Indian world.
In that very extensive and widely disseminated range of works, the Mayamata occupies a fairly well defined place. It is a general treatise, a vastusastra, written in Sanskrit but originating from Dravidian India, most probably from the Tamil area; it is part of the Saivite agamic literature without the connection being underlined by any pronounced sectarianism and its drafting must have been done during the Cola period, at the time when the architecture it describes had reached the peak of its maturity. Comprising about 3300 verses and divided into 36 chapters, it is identified as a vastusastra, that is, as a treatise on dwelling, for it defines the vastu as “anywhere where immortals or mortals live” (2.1)’ This definition is followed by specifications which show that the concept of housing is very wide and is divided into four categories: the Earth (considered as original dwelling), buildings, vehicles and seats (which last three are nothing but “vastu” deriving from the first “vastu”,the Earth). Once iconography has been added to this list we have a panorama, brief but inclusive, of the content of the work. Leaving aside here the details of this content which we will analyse further on, we note that the Mayamata is arranged in three large sections: the first (Chapters 1-10) deals with dwelling sites, the first vastu, the second section with buildings (Chapters 11- 30) and the third (Chapters 31-36), with the last two vastu, vehicles and seats, and with iconography (Linga images and their pedestals). In these different sections are found entire chapters or significant passages consecrated to particular topics in the sphere of technique or that of the ritual which sets the pace for the construction: system of measurements and quality of the architects (Chapter 5), orientation and laying-out (Chapters 6-7), offerings to the gods of the site (Chapter 8), foundation deposit (Chapter 12), joinery (Chapter 17), rites for the end of the construction of a temple and for the first entry into a house (Chapters 18 and 28) and renovation work and associated rites (Chapter 35).
The work as a whole is coherent in spite of various interpolations which are sometimes, but not always, indicated by changes in the metres.” These appear quite frequently in chapters describing temples where they often give information on details of decorative motifs which were evidently mentioned, though not described, in the original text; in the same way the description of a pavilion of the siddha type (25.39 sq.) is interrupted by fourteen verses given over to ritual firepits (kunda); this interpolation would seem to have been entailed by the mention of the fact that the siddha pavilion may serve “for all rituals”; sometimes definitions of terms have been added, such as in Chapter 26 where we are given, but quite untimely, precise meanings for vimana, barmya and malika (26.100). These interpolations do not seem to give rise to any great internal discrepancy; it is only to be noted that the mention, in a general chapter on temples, of thirteen, fourteen and sixteen storeyed temple ( 11.19) seems to be the result of an updating of the text which never otherwise describes temples with more than twelve storeys (22.66 sq., see below ).
That the Mayamata belongs to Saivasiddhanta literature is demonstrated by the leading place given to Siva temples, by the chapter given over to the Linga and especially by the speculations on the nature of the Linga which it contains and, lastly, by the pantheon described in Chapter 36 which is essentially that found in saivagamas. This being said, the Mayamata nevertheless does not appear to be a sectarian work; the list of Siva’s Attendants is followed by a list of those of Visnu (Chapter 23) and Chapter 36 includes descriptions of images of Buddha and Jina which are not usual in agamic literature, no more than are mentions of the temples of these two deities such as are found here in the chapters dealing with villages and foundation deposits (9.70 sq. and 12.59 sq.). Ram Raz, who has noted the tolerance shown in the Mayamata (and the Mana- sara ) towards Buddhists and jains, says however that the locations attributed to the cult places of these two sects were close to those suitable for inferior deities or for malignant spirits.This absence of sectarianism is marked in a much more general way by constant references to a very classical society such as is presented in the Dbarmasastras. The society for which arc intended the construction prescribed by the Mayamata is that of the four uarnas and the “others”, who are installed at a distance and who are responsible for polluting tasks such as refuse collection (e.g. 9.95-98). If the society of the Mayamata is that of the Dharmasastras, its political organization is that of the Arthasastra; there too the references to classical India are very evident, as well where they concern the hierarchies of towns and villages, as when they give the method of organizing the defence of a kingdom with forts, and the way in which the royal council chamber is to be arranged (cf. Chapters 9 and 10 and 29.191 sq.).
It may be said, quite definitively, that the aim of the Mayamata is to organize the integration of the external manifestations of siddhanta Saivism in a context which could be qualified as “non-sectarian Hindu”, so as to avoid the term “secular” which is not very appropriate when speaking of traditional India.
Preface
This is our third MAYAMATA and it owes a lot to the former Institute of Indology (now French Institute of Pondicherry) we have retained without any substantial change the Sanskrit text and, after revision and emendation, the material for many of the footnotes, which have been added to the translation. That last, as well as the Introduction, has been borrowed after revision from our second work published in 1985 by the Sitaram Bhartia Institute of Scientific Research; we have tried to clarify it on several points, without however being able to make more than little progress in the interpretation of the ones. From the first published in 1970-1976 by the French passages dealing with timber work (chapters 18 and 25). The drawings of that second edition too have been kept with slight corrections; it should be reminded that they are meant to be no more than tentative sketches. Lastly an Index-glossary and an Analytical table of contents have been prepared.
The helps received since 1964 when the late Professor Jean Filliozat introduced us for the first time to the MAYAMATA, have been too numerous to be acknowledged one by one; exception is to be made however for that brought by Pandit N.R. Bhatt, founder and former Head of the Sanskrit Department at the French Institute of Pondicherry; I owe him more than can be expressed.
Lastly we thank Mrs. Kapila Vatsyayana for having asked us some years ago to prepare that book for the I.G.N.C.A. series, and for having friendly stood for out endless delays.
Foreword
In the series of Kalamulasastra early texts on music, namely, Matralaksanam, Dattilam and Brhaddesi, have been published. The medieval texts on music, specially, the Sri hastamuktavali (No.3 in the series) and the Nartananirnaya (No.17 in the series), bring us upto the 15th and 16th century. In the case of architecture, despite the IGNCA’s endeavour to publish portions of the Brhatsamhita, the Agnipurana and the Visnudharmottara-purana, first this has not been possible. Instead, our scholars wrere able to complete work first on a late but important text, namely, silparatnakosa. We hope that the sections on architecture in the Brhatsamhita, the Agnipurana and the Visnudharmottara-purana which predate the medieval texts, will be published soon, alongwith revised and re-edited texts of Manasollasa and Aparajitaprccha.
The Mayamatam is the fourteenth and fifteenth volumes in the Kalamulasastra series of the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA).
Urban development and city planning was, undoubtedly, known to the Mohenjodaro, but its most outstanding survivals of the historical period are in South India. The layout of Tanjore and later, Madurai has been widely commented upon. Understandably, technical texts, which devote attention to village, city planning, house building and temple construction, should be expected. An outstanding example of a comprehensive text, comprising thirty-six chapters, is the Mayamatam, written sometime between 11th and 12th century. The text is, obviously, a deduction from existing practices and actual structures rather than an abstract theoretical treatise on architecture. Its contents are more systematic than those found in other comprehensive texts, such as, the Manasollasa or the Samaranganasutradhara. The latter two are encyclopaedic in nature but are not tightly structured. In contrast, Mayamatam is more definitive and coherent as it situates itself within the larger saiva tradition and even more particularly, the Saivagama tradition and takes into account actual town and village layouts and temple construction. While it would be debatable whether the text precedes or succeeds the construction of the Brhadisvara with architectural plans, techniques of construction and the modular approach in regard to the number of storeys. The text assumes importance not only for its detailed descriptions of temples, but also for its detailed descriptions of houses for different categories of inhabitants in a village and a city, entrances, exists, ventilations and much else. Equally revealing is the concern with examination of the site, the analysis of the soil, the preparation of the foundations, the materials to be used and the methods of construction. A comparative study of the valuable date in this text, with techniques, which survive with the traditional sthaptis and others, would be the next rewarding journey.
As we have observed elsewhere Vastu and the Agama traditions are complementary and often they overlap. This was evident in the Svayambhuvasutrasamgraha and this interdependence has been highlighted by Prof. Pierre Filliozat in his Introduction. The Mayamatam, likewise, complements material in the Kamikagama specially the section on the Purvakamikagama and the two should be seen together, because while the text on architecture details the techniques of construction, the Agama texts lay down the process by which the material is transubstantiated to a non-material plane.
The text of the Mayamatam also interlinks the IGNCA programmes of studying the area of Tanjore and the Brhadisvara Temple. In a related programme, precise measurements have been taken of the city, new layout plans have been made, the Tmple has been measured precisely and a new set of drawings of ground plans, elevation and sections, is ready. Alongside, a volume on sculpture of the Temple, not understood in isolation but in its aspect of a programmed orchestration of the outer and the inner, the lower and the higher is ready for publication. Inscriptions have been re-assessed from the point of view of their placement and the contents of these inscriptions, specially those that have been deciphered recently, throw a fund of information on the organization of temple architecture activity. Alongside, the temple rituals are being documented. Studies are being carried out in regard to adherence or departures in contemporary practice of these rituals from the Agamas- whether the Kamikagama or the Makutagama. A comparison of the material of Mayamatam and the studies in the Brhadisvara project will, undoubtedly, throw up a new set of issues for further study.
With the publication of a group of monographs relating to the Brhadisvara Temple, including the Isanasivagurudevapaddhati and the Makutagama, the architectural, sculptural, painting and epigraphical volumes, and the volume based on the socio-political and cultural aspects and the history of the period and region, and the Mayamatam the Institute will have, hopefully, provided a new or, certainly, an alternate medel for the study of cultural areas and regions. Here theory and practice-the textual and the oral, the historical and contemporary, the monument, the texts and the living traditions are being investigated as interpenetrative categories.
Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts is grateful to Dr. Bruno Dagens, Editor and Translator of this edition of the text. A French edition was published by the French Institute of Indology, Pondicherry, in 1970-76 and an English translation of the text from Sitaram Bharatia Institute of Scientific Research was published in 1985. The present edition is a revision of Dr. Bruno Dagen’s critical text published as also a revision of the English translation. He has provided an insightful introduction and an exhaustive glossary of technical terms, which will be an invaluable source of understanding for future scholars. Dr. Bruno Dagens brings to this edition the sensitive understanding of an excavator and an archaeologist. Thus, many complex passages have been edited by him with a view not only of grammatical correctness but also from the point of view of comprehension as statements of architectural construction. The question of homogeneity of this text – whether it was all composed during Cola or the post Cola period is somewhat debatable. Dr. Bruno Dagens concedes that there may be some interpolations. However, the question of interpolations in the Indian textual tradition is itself a complex matter. The text was never considered to be a frozen text. Since at all times the text reflected actual practices, as and when actual practices went through modifications, these changes were reflected in the subsequent texts or incorporated into an already prevalent text. Elsewhere, we have taken up the question “What constitutes the authenticity of a text in the Indian tradition, other than the Vedic text under the category of Sruti?”. The Mayamatam, like many other texts in different disciplines but particularly the arts, is also not a frozen text of a particular fixed date and time, but belongs much more to the stream of evolution and development of distinctive schools of architectural style.
I would like to take this occasion to thank Dr. Bruno Dagens for preparing the present text and thank my colleagues, especially Dr. N.D. Sharma who has assisted in proof-reading of the Sanskrit documents and publications, and Prof. Satkari Mukhopadhyaya, for supervision.
CONTENTS
Vol. I
Foreword
vii
Preface
xi
Table of figures
xv
Analytical table of contents of Mayamata
xvii
Introduction
xxxix
Text and translation of Mayamata (Chapter 1 to 23)
Chapter1:
Summary
3
Maya, auditor of the Lord of the Universe and author of the treatise(1-2). Summary of the treatise (3-11). Envoi: divine origin of the treatise which deals with divine and human dwellings (14).
Chapter2:
Dwelling sites
7
Definitions: -Varieties of dwelling sites(1-3); principal and secondary sites (4-6a); various kinds of dwelling sites (6b-8); the Earth as main site (9). Characteristic of sites intended for Brahmins, kings, vaisys and sudra (10-15). Envoi: the perfect site (20).
Chapter3:
Examination of the site
11
Auspicious characteristics (1-10a). Inauspicious characteristics (10b-19). Envoi: the perfect site (20).
Chapter4:
Taking possession of the site
11
How to take possession of the site: -Dismissing of spirits and others (1-3); ploughing, seeding and grazing (4-8a); offering (8b-10a). New examination is necessary before taking possession of the site (19).
Chapter5:
System of measurements
23
System of measurements: -Definition of the various units(1-6a); when to use them (6-11a); unit for rituals etc. (11b-12). The four technicians: -Names (13-14a); the architect (14b-18a); the sutragrabin (18b-19); the taksaka (20); the vardhaki (21-22a); qualities of technicians (22b-24). -Envoi: such technicians are indispensable (25).
Chapter6:
Orientation
29
Preliminaries: – Choice of date (1-2a); preparation of the ground (2b-3a); making the gnomon (3b-7a). Fixing the cardinal points: -Drawing east-west and north-south lines (7b-13a); values of apacchaya (11b-13). Laying out the building: –Making rope and stakes (14-18); the lines to be drawn: definitions (19-21a); order to be followed in drawing them (21b-24a); drawing the lines for four main building houses (24b-26). The apacchaya (cont.) -Various (27); when to make adjustments (28).
Chapter7:
Diagrams
37
List fo the thirty-two diagrams (1-21). Descriptions: Sakala diagram (22); pecaka diagram (23); pitha diagram(24); mahapitha diagram (25-27); upapitha and other diagrams (28-29). Two two main diagrams (manduka and paramasayin): -Common characteristics (30-33a); names of the gods and their respective places (33b-42); manduka diagram (43-48); the Spirit of the site (49-56); manduka diagram (cont.) (57); Paramasayin diagram (58).
Chapter8:
Offerings
51
Individual offerings (1-15); common offerings (16-20); placing the gods (21-23).
Chapter9:
Villages planning
57
Dimensions of settlements: -System of measurements (cont.): liner (1b-2a) and square (2b-4a) units; dimensions of village settlements (4b-8a); dimensions of towns (8b-10); dimensions of village, kheta, kharvata, forts and cities (10-16a); proportions of villages, kheta, kharvata, forts and cities (10-16a); proportions (16b-18a); the ayadi system (18b-24). Number of Brahmins to be installed in a settlement (25-31). General points: -Choosing a diagram(32-33a); list of village types(33b-34); various kinds of streets (35-39); definition of various kinds of settlements (40). Description of village type: -Dandaka type (41-42); svastika type (43-45); prastara type (46); prakarnaka type (47); nandyavarta type (18-50a); paraga type (50b-51a); padma type (51b-52); sripratisthita and srivatsa types (53-54a). Village planning: -General rules (54b-56); doors and sewage outlets (57-60a); defences (50b-60a); concentric zoning (61b-63); shrines (64-75); layout of centre of village (75b-78); harmony between settlement of shrines (84-85); the body of the Spirit of the Site is not to be harmed (86); arrangement of amenities and dwelling quarters (87-91a); houses: dimensions and types (91b-94); constructions around the village (95-98); errors to be avoided in plainning (99-100). The foundation deposit for villages: -Components (101-122a); location (122b-128). Envoi: Gifts to architect and others and their fruits (129-130).
Chapter10:
Towns
89
Dimensions of towns (1-12) General points: -The surrounding wall: layout and dimensions (13-16a); choice of a diagram and places to be avoided (16b-17a); streets (17b-18). Descriptions of towns and other settlements: -Rajadhanin or the king’s capital (19-26a); khata (26b); kharvata and janasthanakubja (27); pattana or harbour (28b-29a); sibira (29b-30a); senamukha (30b-31a); sthaniya (31b-32a); dronamukha (32b-33a); vidamba and kotmakolaka (33b-34a); nigama (34b-35a); skandhavara and cerika (35b-36a). Fort: -Types (36b-38); qualities to be sought (39-40a); gateways (40b-42a); walls (42b-46a); stores (46b-48a); qualities to be sought (cont. 48b-49a). gods of the fort (49b-51a). Town plans: -General rule regarding the number of streets (51b-54a); dandaka, kartaridandaka, bahudandaka, kalakabandhadandaka, vedibhadra and svastika types of plan (54-61a); bhadraka, bhadramukha, bhadrakalyana, mahabhadra, vastubhadra and subhadra types (62-67a); jayanga, vijaya and sarvatobhadra types (67b-76). Town planning: -Habitation quarters and bazaars (77-87); shrines (88-89a); outside constructions (89-90); specificity o pattana (91b-c); list of various kinds of settlement(92). Envoi: Gifts architect and others and their fruits (93-94).
Chapter11:
The number of storeys and the dimensions
113
Differences regarding the plan of buildings and the number of their storeys(1-3a). Dimensions of buildings according to number of storeys (3b-22a). Destination of buildings according to number of storeys (22b-25). Maximum size to be given to a building (?)(26). Envoi: contents of the chapter (27).
Chapter12:
The foundation deposit
121
General points: -Why a foundation deposit is necessary (1-3a); the foundation pit (3b-8); the casker (9-15a); preliminary rites (15b-22); content of the casket (23-32). Temples foundation deposit: -Deposit for Siva temple (33-46a); deposits for Visnu (46b-48a), for Brahma (48b-51) and for Sanmukha (52-53); deposits for dikpalas and similar Attendants (54-58); for Buddha (59-60), for Jina (61-63), for Durga (64-65a) and for Ksetrapala (65b); deposits for Laksmi, Sarasvati, Kali, the Mothers, Rohini, Parvati, Mohini, etc .(67-70). Deposits for human dwellings: -Deposits for each of the four varna (71-83); deposits for the principal main buildings of catussala (84-87); deposits for various buildings (88-95); general points: deposit is not to be placed when he house mistress is pregnant(95); orientation of deposit (97); formula for foundation (98); deposits for wells etc. (99_100). The first bricks: -Number, nature and dimensions (101-108a); placing the first bricks (108b-111). General points: -Order of operations (112); placing a pillar or a door jamb above the deposit(114).
Chapter13:
The socle
151
Definition and proportions (1-5). Descriptions: -Vedibhadra types (6-8); pratibhadra types (9-14); subhadra types (15-19a). General rules: -Decoration (19b-20); proportions (21-22).
Chapter14:
Tha base
157
Foundation works: -Dry and moist grounds (1-4a); preparing the ground (4b-8). General points: -Regulating course, base and socle (9-11a); definition of base (11b); height of the base (12-16); projection(17-18). Descriptions: -Padabandha base (19-20); uragabandhu base (21-22); pratikrama base (23-24); padmakesara base (25-26); puspapuskala base (27-28); sri bandha base (29-30); mancabandha base (31)srikanta base (32); srenibandha base (33); padmabandha base (34); vaprabandha base(35); kapotabandha base(36a); pratibandha base (36b); kalasa base(37); General points: -Decoration and proportion (38-39); synonyms for ‘base'(40); projection and recess (41-44); rule for interruption of base and stereo bate (45-47).
Chapter15:
Dimensions of pillars and choice of materials
179
Pillars: -General points: -Synonyms for ‘pillar’ (2); dimensions (3-8); various kinds of pillars:pratistambha, nikhatastambha, jhasalastambha (9-11a); rule for pillar diameter (11b-12). -Descrioptions: -Brahmakanta, vinsukanta, indrakanta, saumya, purvasra, rudrakanta and rudracchanda pillars (13-17a); proportion of lotiform base (17b); bhadraka pillar (18-19); sundupada and pindipada pillars (20-22a); ictrakhanda, srikhnda and srivajra pillars (22b-26a); ksepanastambha(26b-27a). General points (cont.): -Pillar assembly, general use of bracket capital, definition of module (27b-29a). -Capitals: -Types of bell-capital (29b-30); pillar upper part arrangement (31); bell capital (32-34a); abacus and other elements (34b-39a); bracket capital: dimensions (39b-42); description (43-47), various types (48-50). -Pilasters projection (51); intercolumniation (52-54); wooden and stone pillars (55-56); placing the reference line (57-58a); how to calculate the height of a building (58b-59a); placing the reference line (cont.)(59b-61a).
Choice of building materials: -Materials to be used (61b) -Characteristics of correct materials: -Trees (62-63); list of trees suitable for pillars (64-67a); stone is not to be used for vais, a and sudra buildings (78-79a); pure, ‘mixed’ and ‘mingled’ building (79b-80). -Search for timber: -Preliminary rites (81-83); ‘male’, ‘female’ and ‘neuter’ trees (84-86); cutting the tree(87-92); omens (93-98); squaring, transporting and storing timber (99-102); storing the nails, etc. (103-104a); making a muhurtastambha (104b-108); list of trees not to be used for human dwellings (109-114). -The making of bricks: -Choice of earth (115-116a); mixing earth with water and various saps (116b-118a); dimensions of bricks (118b-119a); drying and baking (119b); testing the bricks (120). -Envoi: why good materials are to be chosen (121).
Chapter16:
Entablature
213
The architrave and its upper fascia: -Three kinds of architrave (1-3); four kinds of arrangement for entablature (4); the upper fascia (5-7a). Various features: -Braces (7b-9a); consoles (9b-10a); lierne and cornice (10b-15); struts (16-18a); decoration of cornice (18b-20a); upper fascia (cont.) (20b-23a); cornice (cont.) (23b-27); frieze: description (28-32a), various kinds (32b-35). The ceiling: -Arrangement of architrave and pillars (41b-42a); orientation of architrave, beams, etc. (42b-44a); arrangement of beams, valika, joists and small joists (44b-45); decoration of entablature and making of ceiling (46-47); height of entablature (48); preparation of coating (49); even and odd measurements (50a); position of the door (50b); rule for arrangement of stereobate (51-53). Latticed windows: -Position and dimensions (54-55a); arrangement of upright and transoms (55b-56a); various types of latticed window (56b-60a); jambs and shutters (60b-61); circular windows(62). Walls: -Three sorts of walls (63); description of latticed and plank walls. Envoi: contents of the chapter and emphasis on rules regarding stereo bate (67).
Chapter17:
Joinery
235
General points: -Definition (1); basic principle (2); varieties of assembly: names(3); how to make an assembly (4-8a); position of pieces to be joined (8b-10a); varieties of assembly (cont.); definitions (10b-15a). Descriptions: -Sarvatobhadra assembly (15b-18); nandyavarta assembly (19-22a); svastibandha assembly (22b-23); vardhamana assembly (24-26a). General rules for successful assemblies (26b-28). Assemblies for pillars and for pillars (29) and horizontal elements (30); assembling the pillars: types of assembly (31-34); general rules (35-37); assembling the horizontal elements: types of assembly (38-34); general rules (35-37); assembling the horizontal elements: types of assembly (38-41); general rules (42-43). tenons and pegs (44-45a). Errors regarding tenons and pillars (45b-46); position on diagrams (47-49); middle regarding tenons and pillars (45b-46); position on diagrams (47-49); middle of pieces (50-51a) and confusion of elements (51b-53a); evil result of an error (53b-54); errors regarding use of old pieces (55-56); assembly of pillars and architrave (57-58a) and assembly above the place of Brahma at the centre of the building (58b-59); error regarding male, female and neuter woods (60); happy fruit of a correct assembly (61). Description of a special assembly(/) (62).
Chapter18:
Making of the roof and completion of the building work
251
Upper levels of elevation: -The attic: -Height (2); projections and recess (3-5a); decorative elements (5b-7a). -The roof: -Different types of roof and their proportions (7b-12a); proportions and names of corresponding types of rafter work (12b-14); roof shapes (15-17). Height of the finial (18-19). -Roof timber work: -Number of rafters (20); puskara(?) (21-22); dimensions of rafters (23-29); the five categories of rafters (30-31); rafter work of a wagon roof (?) (32-35); timber-work of a pyramid roof (?) (36-37); dimensions of various roof elements (38-45); roofing (46-47a); lierne and other elements (?) (47b-64); roofing (cont.) (65-66a); axis of the finial: dimensions (66b-67) and setting up (68-77); decoration of the porch gable (78-81). -The finial: -Position of final axis (82); height (83-87a) and width (87b-89a) of finial parts; finial support (?) (89b-90); the finial is suitable only for the first three varna (91). Coatings and mortars: -Different kinds (92-98a); preparation of kalka and cikkana (98b-101a); preparing of bandhodaka (101b-103); making a roofing (?) and a gutter (104-108); paintings (109-112a); recipe to make a rock-like mortar (112b-115). -The crowning bricks (116-121a). -Axis of the finial (cont.): materials, shape and dimensions (121b-127a). Consecration ceremony: -Laying in place of the crowning bricks: -Preparatory rites: arrangement of pavilion (127b-133a); placing the bricks and the finial axis in that pavilion (133b-134a); offerings (134b-136a); settling of the architect for the night (136b-138a). Morning rites: dressing of the architect (138b-141a); meditation (141b-142); washing the bricks and the finial axis (143).
-Setting the bricks: climbing up the roof of the building and placing the bricks (144-147a); placing a sacred deposit under the axis of finial (147b-151); hanging a banner and clothing the building (152-154); honoraria for the architect and others (155-156); where to place the deposit in various kinds of building (157-158). -General rules for the completion of the building work (159-169). -Summary of what has been already told in this chapter (163) -Axis of the finial (cont.): suitable woods (164). -Consecration rites: -Choice of a correct time (165); preparatory rites: arrangement of a consecration pavilion (166-170a); placing twenty-five vases and invoking the gods (170b-172); setting of the architect for the night (173-174); arrangement fo a sacrificial pavilion (175-178a); placing the murtikumbha in that pavilion and dressing the temple (178b-181); offerings to the divinities of the site (182-184). -The opening of the eyes (185-188); climbing up again the temple roof and handing banners (189-193a); making the vase of the finial and setting it in place (193b-195); consecration formula (196-198); end of the architect and others (202-206). -General rules for the consecration: -Necessity for the consecration ritual (207-210); the architect officiates in the consecration (211-212); the time for consecration (213-214); placing the vases (215). Envoi: the rules to be followed for success.
Chapter19:
One storeyed temples
307
General features of single storeyed temples: -Dimensions and proportions (1-3a); shapes (3b-4a). General points regarding temples: -The pavilion in front of the shrine (4b-9); synonyms designating buildings (10-12); dimensions of the sanctum (13-15a); proportions of the finial (15b-17); false-dormer windows set in the roof (18-19a); the attic stereo bate (19b); the door (20-22); the gargoyle: position (23-24); description (25-28); alternative position (29). General appearance of single storeyed temples (30-34). General points regarding temples (cont.): Nagara, dravida and vesara categories (35-38); images to be set on temple facades: ground floor (40-43); second floor (44-45a); third floor (45b-46); attic (47-48a). Envoi: decorative elements which may used. (48b-49).
Chpater20:
Two storeyed temples
325
Dimensions and proportions of two storeyed temples (1-5) Descriptions of two storeyed temples: -Svastika type (6-7); vipulasundara type (9b-10a) General points regarding temples: -Aediculae (10b-12a). Description of two storeyed temples (cont.): -Kailasa (12b-13a); parvata (13b-16a); svastibandha (16b-18a); kalyana (18b-19); pancala (20); visnukanta (21); sumangala (22-23); gandhara (24); hastiprstha (25-26); manohara (27a); isvarakanta (27b-28a); urttaharmya (28b-29a) and kuberakanta (29b-30a). Envoi: there are fifteen types of two storeyed temple (30b-31a). General points regading temples (cont.): -Male,female and neuter building (31b-34a).engaged structures (35); arcatures: proportions (36-37) and positions (?) (38-39).
Chapter21:
Three storeyed temples
337
Dimension and proportions of three storeyed temples (1-2a). Description of three storeyed temples: -Svastika type (2b-10); vimalakrti type (11-14); hastiprstha type (15-18a) General points points regarding temples: -The pavilion in front of the shrine: proportions (18b); decorative features (19-20); position of the reference line(21-23a). Descriptions of three storyed temples (cont.): -Hastiprstha type (cont.)(23b-29a). General points regarding temples (cont.): -Arcatures: tambhatorana (29b-33). Descriptions of three storeyed temples (cont.) -Hastiprstha type (cont.) (34-40a); bhadrakostha type (40b-48a); vrttakuta type (48b-49); sumangala type (50-51); gandhara type (52-59); sribhoga type (60). General points regarding temples (cont.): -Aediculae (61-64a); new classification: buildings with and without aisle (64b-65); the sanctum (66); stereobate (67); arcatures (cont); patratorana, makaratorana and citratorana (68b-80a); other decorative elements; kumbhalata (80b-81), stambhakumbhalata (82-83) and vrttasphutita (84-86a); stairs: four types of stairs (86b-90), rule for step (91-92), proportions and location of stairs(93-97). Envoi: arcatures and stairways have been described in this chapter (98); nagara, dravida and vesara temples (99).
Chapter22:
Temples with four or more storeys
363
Four storeyed temples: -Dimensions and proportions (1-2); Descriptions: subhadraka type (3-12); srivisala type (13-14); bhadrakostha type (15-24a); jayavaha type (24b-34a); bhadrakuta type (34b-36). General points regarding temples:-The kapotapanjara (37-42). Descriptions of four storeyed temples (cont.): -Bhadrakuta type (cont.) (43-46a); manohara type (46b-47a); avantika type (47b-48); sukhavaha type (49-54). Five storeyed temples (55-57). Temples with six to eleven storeys (58-66a). Twelve storeyed temples (66b-71a). General points regarding temples (cont.): -Odd and even measurements: proportion of aediculae (71b-73); engaged structures for temples with four storeys or more (74-75); aediculae:proportions (76-78a), arrangement (78b-79a), projection (79b-81), roof shapes (82-85), other kinds of arrangement (86-92a); dimensions are to be in whole numbers of units (92b-93a). Envoi: thus have been described temples (93b-94).
Chapter23:
Enclosures and Attendants’ shrines
387
Enclosure: -Aim of temple enclosure (1); dimensions of the five enclosures: according to even and odd diagrams (2-5) or according to main temple size (6-16); position of reference line (17); enclosure walls: dimensions (18-22) and decoration (23-25); cloister-like gallery (26-31); decoration of wall coping (32a); height of enclosures base (32b-34). Attendants shrines: -General features (35-38);lists of eight (39-40a), twelve (40b-42a), sixteen (42b-45a) and thirty-two (45b-52) Siva’s Attendants; arrangement of Attendants shrines: ccording to odd and even diagrams (53a); according to number of enclosures (53b-54a); according to orientation of main temple (54b-57a); appearance of Attendants shrines. Storeyed galleries: -General features (58b-61a); proportions (61b-69); temple storeyed gallery and dwelling house annexes (70-71a); storeyed galleries and Attendant’s shrines or other features (71b-73). Enclosures arrangement: -Altars (74-81); flag mast (82-83a); various buildings within the enclosures (83b-88a); flag mast 9cont.) (88b-91);other buildings (92-97). Attendants of Visnu: -Lists and arrangement of eight (89-100a); twelve (100b-102), sixteen (103-105a) and thiry-two (105b-106) Visnu’s Attendants. Characteristics of the image of Vrsa: -General proportions (107-110a); detailed proportions (110b-127a); general features (127b-131).
Vol.II
Text and translation of Mayamata (chapter 24 to Appendix)
Chapter24:
Gateway
421
The five gateways: -Dimensions in relation to that of the main temple (1-10); names (11); dimensions and proportions (12-22); dimensions of doors (23-25), based (27-28) and pillars (29-30); position of foundation deposit (31a). General rules: -List of fifteen types (31-34a), number of storeys (34b-35); elevation: proportions for single storeyed (36-38), two storeyed (38b-40), three storeyed (41-43a), four storeyed (43b-46a), five storeyed (46b-49), six storeyed (50-54a) and seven storeyed (54b-59a) gateways; horizontal proportions for single storeyed (59b-60a), two storeyed (60b-63), three storeyed (63-68a), four storeyed (68b-70), five storeyed (71-72a), six storeyed (72b-74a) and seven storeyed (74b-77) gateways; doors and stairways (78-80). The five gateways(cont.): -Shapes (81-84a); dvarsasobha or gateway of first enclosure: srikara type (84b-88), ratikanta type (89-91a) and kantavijaya type (91b-94a);dvarasala or gateway of second enclosure: vijayavisala type (94b-97), visalalaya type (98-100a), and vipratikanta type (100b-103a); dvaraprasada or gateway of third enclosure: srikanta type (103b-106a); srikesa type (106b-110) and kesvisala type (111-113), dvaraharmya or gateway of fourth enclosure: svastika type (114-116), disasvastika type (117-120a) and mardala type (120b-123a); dvaragopura or gateway of fifth enclosure: matrakanda type (123b-126), srivisala type (127-129); caturmukha type (130-134); rule for gutters (135). Envoi: the wide diversity of the five gateways (139-137).
Chapter25:
Pavilions and halls
451
Pavilions: -General rules: -Position (1-3a) and functions (3b-5) of pavilions; names square (6-8a) and rectangular (8b-11a) pavilions; features to be described in this chapter (11b-12); proportions and dimensions: value of intercolumniation (13-16), dimensions of pillars (17-20a), base (20a-21) and socle (22-24); definition of pavilion (25); etymology of the term mandapa (26a); definition of light building (26b-29), canopy (30-34) and malikamandapa (35-36a). Square pavilions: -Meruka type (36b-37a); vijaya type (37b-39a); siddha type (39b-41). The sacrificial pavilion: – Inside arrangement (42); quadrangular (43-44), vulva-form (47), semicircular (48), triangular (49a), circular (49b), hexagonal (50), lotiform (51), octagonal (52), heptagonal (53) and pentagonal (54) firepits; other method to draw firepits (?) (55-56) -Square pavilions (cont.):
Chapter26:
Houses
515
The main buildings: -Number and general features (1-3a); dimensions: width (3b-6a), length (6b-9a) and height (9b-10). Houses with a single main building: General characteristics (11-12a); names (12b-13a); other features (13b-16a); orientation (16b-17). -Orientation (18-20); use and arrangement (21). Houses with a single main building (cont.): -First and second type of dandaka houses (22b-25); arrangement fo doors (26-27); third (28-31a), fourth (31b-32) and fifth (33-35) type of dandaka houses. Proportions of the verandah for houses with one, two or three main buildings (36), Houses with a single main building (cont.): -dandaka houses (cont.) (37); maulika house (38-39a); svastika house (39b-40); caturmukha house (41-43); features common to dandaka and other types (44-46). Houses with two main buildings: -Caturmukha type (47-51a); svastika type (51b-53); dandavaktra type (54-55). Houses with three main buildings. -Merukanta type (56-58); maulibhadra type (59-62); dimensions of houses with three main buildings: -Dimensions (64-66a) and types (66b-67); calculating the length (68-72). Sarvatobhadra houses with four main buildings: -First type (73-85); second type (86-87); third type (88-91); fourth type (92-95a); fifth type (95b-99). Definitions of verandah (?) (101) vardhamana houses with four main buildings: -First type (102-109a); second type (109b-112a); third type (113b-115a); fourth type (115b-118); fifth type (119-133); sixth type (134-137a); seventh type (137b-151). Nandyavarta houses with four main buildings: -Firth type (152-159a); second type (159b-161a); third type (161b-167); fourth type (168-172a); fifth type (172b-177a). Other types of houses with four main buildings. -Svastika houses with four main buildings: Svastika house (177b-185); rucaka house (186-187). General rules for houses with four main buildings (189). Houses with seven and ten main buildings (190-193) General features of houses: -Verandah and porch (194); ‘limitless’ house (195); even and uneven numbers )196a); placing the door (196b); placing the foundation deposit (197-198); auspicious and inauspicious axial door (199). Monasteries (200-202) General features of houses (cont.): -Dimension of houses pillars (203-205); how to build an auspicious house with reference to ayadi (206-211); annexes of houses (212-213); buildings within the house enclosures (214-218); number of enclosures (219-220). (
Chapter27:
Features of houses for the four classes
573
The enclosure: -Dimensions (1-4); plan (5); endclosure wall (6-9); annexes built around the house (10). Rules for laying out: -Houses with main buildings separated or in blocks (11-13), small and large sizes (14-15a); drawing the house diagram (15b-19). The central pavilion: -Dimensions (20-23); the central platform (24-26); characteristics of central pavilion (27-35). Laying out the principal main-building of a catussala: -General rules (36-39a); laying out the sukhalaya for Brahmins (40-41). General proportions for houses (42-44):Laying out the principal main-building of a catussala (cont.): -The sukhalaya (cont.) (45); the annalaya for ksatriya (46-48); the Elements of the upper part of the house (55-57). Proportions for dwelling pavilions (?) (58-59). Foundation deposit: -Position (60-65); the muhurtastambha (66-69). General points: -Doors (70-73a); placing the gods (73b-75a); pillars (75b-80); the verandah (81-83a); the chamber of the master (83b-91). Roofing of the main building (95a) materials (95b-96a); base (96b-99); distribution of appurtenance (100), the heart (101-103); number of finials (?) (104); distributing oappurtenaces (cont.) (105-108) The four types of dwelling: -List (109-110a); disibhadra dwelling (110b-111); garudapaksa dwelling (112a); kayabhara dwelling (112b-120a); tulaniya dwelling (120b-125a). General rules (cont.) -Why to protect the external wall (125b-126); auspicious proportions (127); door proportions (128-129); time for construction (130-131); auspicious door positions (132); placing the master’s apartment and the gynaeceum (133); period for beginning the construction (134).
Chapter28:
First entry into a house
611
When to enter the house (1-2) First rites: -Preparatory ceremony (3-5); putting in place of the vases (5-6); preparing the food for offering (7-9); installing the gods (10-11a); offerings (11b-23); departure of the architect (24-25a); preparing the house (25b-27). The entering in of the master and mistress of the house: They enter (28); the first meal (29-30); the perfect house (31-33); errors to be avoided (34); the entry is to be joyful(35); Offerings in villages, etc.(36)
Chapter29:
Royal palaces
623
Proportions (1-12a). Features of a small palace: -Plan (12b-21); gateways (22-24a); arrangements of buildings (24b-26); the moat (27-29a); arrangement of buildings (cont.)(29b-30a); first enclosure (30b-42); second enclosure (43-55); third enclosure (56-64). The town: -General features (65-69); the town’s wall (70-72a). Palace gateways (72b-78); number of storeys for palaces (79-86). The palace of narendra: -Enclosure walls (87-94), inner arrangement of the palace (95-102); external enclosure (103-107). Saubala palace: -First enclosure (108-111a); second enclosure (111-118a); third enclosure (118b-120); fourth enclosure (121-122a); fifth enclosure (122b-129). Saubala palace: -First enclosure (108-111a); second enclosure (111b-118a); third enclosure (118b-120); fourth enclosure (121-122a); fifth enclosure (122b-129). The adhikaja palace: -Arrangement of buildings (130-157); walls and most (158-161). Different kinds of royal cities (162-167). Miscellaneous palace buildings: -General features (65-69); the town’s wall (70-72a). Palace gateways (72b-78); number of storeys for palaces (79-86). The palace for narendra: -Enclosure walls (87-94); inner arrangement of the palace (95-102); external enclosure (103-107). Saubala palace: -First enclosure (108-111a); second enclosure (111b-118a); third enclosure (118b-120); fourth enclosure (121-122a); fifth enclosure (122b-129). The adhiraja palace: -Arrangement of buildings (130-157); walls and moat (158-161). Different kinds of royal cities (162-167). Miscellaneous palace buildings: -Elephant stable (168-180); the horses stable (181-187); various buildings (188-190); the council chamber, etc. (191-195a); the bath house (195b-200a); the coronation building (200b-205a); ritual weighing place (205b-215); place for gold embryo ceremony (216-225); the guard lodgings (226); underground apartment (227). Envoi: all is to be arranged according to king’s best pleasure (228).
Chapter30:
Doors
681
General features: -Dimensions of doors (2-11a); dimensions of door jambs (11b-12); door leaves (13-32); auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of doors (33-42); positions of doors(43-51). Gateways: -Dimensions of the door(53-55a); single storeyed gateways; srikara, sita and sribhadra types (61b-67); two storeyed gateways: ratikanta, kantavijaya and sumangala types (68-75a); three storeyed gateways: mardala, matrakhanda and sriniketana types (75b-94a); seven storeyed gateways: bhadrakalyana, subhadra and bhadrasundara types (94b-108a): six storeyed gateways (108b-109); five storeyed gateways (110-114); four storeyed gateways (115-116); general rules (117-118); definition of stereobate (119). Envoi: for whom are intended the various kinds of gateways (120-121).
Beds(1-6) and divans(7-10a). Seats -General rules (10b-13a); lion throne (13b-19); stand for worship(20-23). Rules regarding ayadi series (24).
Chapter33:
The Linga
739
General points: -Different kinds of divine representation (1-3); characteristics of stones(4-7); male, female and neuter stones and when to use them(8-12); young, mature and aged stones (12b-16a) pregnant stones (16b-17a); position of the ‘face’ of a stone (17b-19a); searching for stones: time and place (19b-21), preliminary rites (22-28a); quarrying a stone (28b-31a) and taking it to workshop (31b-33); how to proceed when a suitable stone is not found(34-36). Dimensions of Linga: Linga and temple dimensions (37a); place of Linga in the sanctum (37b-40a); dimensions of nagara Linga (40b-43a); dimensions of dravida Linga (43b-45a); dimensions of vesara Linga (45b-48a); dimensions expressed in cubits (48b-53); dimensions of vesara Linga (45b-48a);dimensions expressed in cubits (48b-53); dimensions calculated from those of door and other elements of the temple (54-57); rule regarding ayadi series (58-64). Fashioning the Linga: -Shapes to be given to the block at the start (65-66); the three parts of the Linga(67) and the way to draw them (68-71). Proportions: -Sarvatobhadra, svastika, sivadhika types of Linga (72-79); surarcita, dharalinga, sahasralinga and trairasika type (80-84). Linga installed by Rsi (85-86). Self-generated Linga (87-92a). The cutting of a rounded shape at the top of the Linga (92b-100)? Bringing out the characteristic signs: -Preparing the Linga (101-102); preliminary rites (103-105); drawing the lines (106-109a); bringing out the characteristics of nagara Linga (109b-114a); of dravida Linga (114b-117a); and of vesara Linga (117b-119a); width and depth of lines (119b-127a); general rules (127b-135); shapes of the frenum (136-143). Other types of Linga: -Crystal Linga (144-152); Linga of various material such as earth (153-158a); banalinga (158b-159). Envoi: -Installation of Linga (161); fruits of installing a Linga (162).
Chapter34:
Pedestals
783
General rules: -Materials (2-3); dimensions (4-10); shapes (10-13a); names (13b-15). Descriptions: -Bhadra pedestal (16-17); padma pedestal (18); vajrapadma pedestal (19-20); mahabja pedestal (21-22); srikara pedestal (23-24); pithapadma pedestal (25); mahavajra and saumya pedestals (26-28a); srikamya pedestal (28b-29). Common features (30-43)? Placing the pedestal: -The liners: Brahma stone (44-49) and nandyavarta stones (50). Pedestals for statues (51-56a). Temple, pedestal and image(?): -Dimensions of temples as calculated from those of pedestals (56b-60); dimensions of temples as calculated from those of the images (61-64a). Making of the eight (ingredients)mortar (64b-66). The gods in the shrine: -Number of gods (67); the biggest shrine is that housing the Linga (68); diagram of the sanctum and place of the gods (69-71). Envoi: all attention is to be given in placing divine representation in the sanctum (72); formless and man-made Linga (73); contents of the chapter (74).
Chapter35:
Renovation work
803
-Temple renovation (2b-14); renovation of Linga (15-33a); renovation of pedestal (33b-36); renovation of images (37-40a); general rules (40b-44); renovation of villages, etc.(45-47). Provisional installation: -Why a provisional installation (48); provisional shrine (49-50); provisional Linga (51-53); provisional image (54-55); provisional pedestal (56); materials?(57); how long may last a provisional feature(580. Envoi: rules for renovation have to be followed (59).
Chapter36:
Iconography
821
Brahma(2-7). Visnu’s images: -Visnu (8-12a); Varaha (12b-14a); Trivikrama (14b-15a); Narasimha (15a-24); Anantasayin (25-35a). Mahesvara (35b-43a). The sixteen manifestations of Siva: -The sixteen manifestation of Siva: -List (43b-46a); common features (46b-48); Sukhasanamurti (49-51a); Vaivahamurti (51b-58); Umaskandamurti (59-62a); Vrsarudhamurti (62b-64a); Tripurantakamurti (65-67a); Dancing forms (67b-89a); Candrasekharamurti (80b-81a); Ardhanarisvaramurti (81b-89a); Hariharamurti (90-91); Candesanugrahamurti (92-93); Kamarimurti (94-95a); Kalanasamurti (95b-97); Daksinamurti (98-101); Bhiksatanamurti (102-103); Kankalamurti (104-107a); Mukhalinga (107b-118). Sanmukha (119-121). Ganadhipa (122-126) Surya (127-136a). Lords of the directions: Indra (136b-138); Agni (139-143); Yama (144-149); Nirrtti (149b-150); Varuna (151-152); Vayu (153-154a); Kubera (154b-156); Candra (157-161a); Isana (161b-162a). Other gods and goddesses: -Kama (162b-167a); the two Asvin (167b-170); the eight Vasu (171-173a); the eight Marut (173b-174); the Rudra and the Vidyesvara (175-177); Ksetrapala (178-185); Candesvara (186-188); the twelve Aditya (189-191); the seven sages (192-194a); the seven Rohini (194b-195a); Garuda (195b-198a); Sasta (198b-210). The Mothers: -List (211-212); Virabhadra (213-214a); Brahmani (216-217); Mahesvari (218-219); Kaumari (220-222a); Vaisnavi (222b-224a); Varahi (224b-227a); Indrani (227b-228); Camundi (229-234a); Vinayaka (234b); installation of the Mothers (235-240a); Camundi (cont.) (240b-242); the Mothers Attendants (234-247a). Goddesses: -Laksmi (247b-255); Yaksini (256-257); Katyayani (258-262); Durga (263-264); Sarasvati(265-268a); Jyestha (268b-273); Bhumi (274-275); Parvati (276-278a);Saptamata (279-280). Buddha (281-283). Jina(284-291). General Points: -Proportions of images (293-303); dimensions of portable images (304-309). Guardians of the doors (310-314). Envoi: What has been told in that chapter(315).
Appendix:
Where and when a well is to be established
899
Choice of the place(?)(1-5);choice of the day (6-7); choice of the asterism (8-13); choice of the place(?)(cont.)(14-15).
Bibliography
905
Editions and Manuscripts of Mayamatajj used for the establishment of the Sanskrit text
911
Index-Glossary
913
The Hindu Temple (2 Vols.)
Author Stella Kramrisch Language, Pages English, 557 Pgs. (HB) Upload Date 2023 / 05 / 08 ISBN 9788120802223, 8120802225
This two-volume work explains in detail the religious and spiritual significance of the temple by means of copious references to Sanskrit texts-both sacred and scientific. It depicts the Hindu Temple as not merely a heap of brick, stone or wood but a visible symbol of aspirations of pious men and women, the throbbings of their hearts in religious fervour and their endeavour for the attainment of salvation.
The first four parts of the work are devoted to the philosophy of temple architecture. Part V deals with the origin and development of the temple from the Vedic fire altars to the latest forms. Part VI discusses the pyramidal and curvilinear superstructures in the main varieties of the Sikhara, the Sikhara enmeshed in Gavaksas and the composite Sikhara. Part VII describes the proportional measurements and the rhythmic disposition of the garbha-grha and the vertical section. It discusses the proportions of the Mandapa and the types of temples described in ancient Sanskrit texts like the Brhatsamhita and the Samarangana-sutradhara.
This most comprehensive and authoritative treatise of ancient Indian Temple Architecture will prove of immense help to the students of ancient Indian culture.
About the Author
Stella Kramrisch, the world-renowned specialist in Ancient Indian Art and Architecture, needs no introduction. Her epoch-making works-The Indian Sculpture, The Indian Sculpture in the Boston Museum and The Hindu Temple – have elicited well-merited praise from the galaxy of art critics all over the world.
Stella Kramrisch passed away in 1993.
Preface
An attempt has here been made to set up the Hindu temple conceptually from its foundation to its final. Its structure is rooted in Vedic tradition and primeval modes of building have contributed their shapes. The principles are given in the sacred books of India and the structural rules in the treatises on architecture. They are carried out in the shrines which still and throughout the country and which were built in many varieties and styles over a millennium and a half from the fifth century A.D.
The purpose of the Hindu temple is shown by its form. It is the concrete symbol of Reintegration and coheres with the rhythm of the thought images in its carvings and laid out in its propositions. Their perfection is a celebration of all the rites enacted during the building of the temple from the ground to its pinnacle. Nothing that is seen on the temple is left unsaid in the verbal tradition nor is any of the detail arbitrary or superfluous. Each has a definite place and is part of the whole.
The Hindu Temple is the sum total of architectural rites performed on the basis of its myth. The myth covers the ground and is the plan on which the structure is raised.
Contents
Volume I
Part I.
The Site
1
Tirtha and temple
3
Site and Builder
7
The Stability of the site
12
Purification Insemination and levelling of the site
14
Part II
The Plan
19
Square and Circle Vedic Origins
22
The Square Mandala of the Earth and of the Ecliptic
29
The symbolism of the Square
40
The Enclosure
40
The Ornament of Visvakarman
40
The Remainder
44
The form of Martanda
44
Vastu the Remainder
45
The two main types of the Vastu Diagram
46
A. The Mandala of 64 Squares
46
B. The Mandala of 81 Squares and the Vastupurusa
49
The Organism of the plan
51
The Series of 32 types of Vastumandala
58
Various closed polygons as shapes of the vastumandala
62
Part III
Plan and Supernal Man
65
Agni Prajapati and vastupurusa
68
The Subtle Body of the Purusa and its Pictures
71
The Descent of the Vastupurusa
73
Nature and Name of the Vastupurusa
79
The Gods as constituents of the body of the Vastupurusa
85
Part IV
The Substances of which the temple is built
99
Brick
101
Stone
108
wood
116
Plaster
121
The Germ of the temple
126
Part V
Names and origins of the temple
129
The Names
131
Vimana
131
Prasada
134
Further names of the Temple
137
The Object of building a temple
139
Architectural Origins
145
1. Citi the Altar
145
2. The Dolmen
150
3. The Shed of Initiation and the Tabernacle
156
The Image of the mountain and the cavern
161
A. The Garbhagrha
161
B. The Superposition of Shapes along the vertical axis
166
C. The Form of the vertical axis
175
Part VI
The Superstructure
177
I. The Pyramidal Superstructure
179
I A. The Pyramidal Superstructure formed of slabs
189
I A1. The stepped truck of the pyramid
189
I A2. The Straight Trunk with round-edged slabs
190
I B. The Pyramidal Superstructure is composed of storeys
193
I B1. The Stepped trunk of the pyramid formed of single storeys
193
I B2. The High Temple
194
I B3. The Enclosure of chapels
197
II
The Curvilinear Superstructure
205
The Main Varieties of the Curvilinear Superstructure
210
II A. The Cluster of Sikharas
210
II B. The Sikhara Enmeshed in Gavaksas
214
II C. The composite Sikhara
218
Function and Form of the Superstructure
220
Part VII
Proportionate Measurement and Varieties of the Temple
225
I. Proportionate Measurement of the temple
227
The Rhythmic disposition of the ground plan and of the vertical section
227
The Norms of Proportionate Measurement
237
From the Sixth Century to C. 900 A.D
237
Proportionate Measurement about 1000 A.D.
244
Proportions of the Mandapa
254
The Proportions of South Indian Temples
261
II.Varieties of the Temple and their genesis
271
A. The Twenty Temples
271
B. The five Vimanas and the 45 temples
277
C. the five Vimanas and the 64 Hall temples Nagara Dravida and Vesara
286
Volume II
Part VIII
The Images of the temple
297
Position and proportion of the images of the gods
299
Symbols of Entry and Exit
313
The Door and its images
313
The Window Gavaksa
318
The face of Glory Kirittimukha
322
Images of Sakti
332
Sardula Lion and lioness
332
The female power
338
Symbols of Reintegration
343
The Images of Immanent Breath
343
Mithuna the state of being a couple
346
Amalaka
348
The Temple as Purusa
357
Explanation of plates
363
Appendix
The Hundred and One temples of the Visnudharmottara
411
Vastupurusavidhana of Narada chapters VIII and X
427
Hayasirsapancaratra Chapter XIII
429
Kamikagama Chapter XLIX
431
Sources
437
Index
443
Plates I-LXXX
467
Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization
Author Heinrich Zimmer, Joseph Campbell Language, Pages English Upload Date 2022 / 08 / 17 ISBN 9788120807518, 8120807510
Gandhāra and the formation of the Vedic and Zoroastrian canons.
Witzel, Michael. 2011.
In Proceedings of the International Symposium. The Book. Romania. Europa. Etudes euro- et afro- asiatiques. 490-532. Bucharest: Biblioteca Bucureştilor.
In this broad historical and critical overview based on a lifetime of scholarship, James Alfred Martin, Jr., examines the development of the concepts of beauty and holiness as employed in theories of aesthetics and of religion. The injunction in the Book of Psalms to “worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness” addressed a tradition that has comprehended holiness primarily in terms of ethical righteousness–a conception that has strongly influenced Western understandings of religion. As the author points out, however, the Greek forbears of Western thought, as well as many Eastern traditions, were and are more broadly concerned with the pursuit of beauty, truth, and goodness as ideals of human excellence, that is, with the “holiness of beauty.” In this work Martin describes a philosophical stance that should prove to be most productive for the dialogue between aesthetics and religion.
Beginning with the treatment of beauty and holiness in Hebrew, Greek, and classical Christian thought, the author traces the emergence of modern theories of aesthetics and religion in the Enlightenment. He then outlines the role of aesthetics in the theories of religion proposed by Otto, Eliade, van der Leeuw, and Tillich, in the cultural anthropology of Geertz, and in the thought of Santayana, Dewey, Whitehead, Heidegger, and Wittgenstein. In a global context Martin explores the relation of aesthetic theory to religious thought in the traditions of India, China, and Japan and concludes with reflections on the viability of modern aesthetic and religious theory in the light of contemporary cultural and methodological pluralism.
Originally published in 1990.
The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.
Universe and Inner Self in Early Indian and Early Greek Thought
ICONOGRAPHICAL STUDY ON THIRUKKANNAPURAM SAURIRAJA PERUMAL TEMPLE
Dr. N. Rameshkumar, Assistant Professor of History, Post Graduate & Research Department of History, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu
International Journal of Advanced Research in ISSN: 2278-6236 Management and Social Sciences
Scaffolds and dissections: computational reconstruction of Indic Temples and their architectural production
Datta, Sambit, and David J. Beynon.
“Scaffolds and dissections: computational reconstruction of Indic Temples and their architectural production.” Architectural Theory Review 22, no. 3 (2018): 410-432.
In EAAC 2011: South of East Asia: Re-addressing East Asian Architecture and Urbanism, Proceedings of the East Asian Architectural Culture International Conference. Singapore: National University of Singapore, 2011.
Vastu Purusha Mandala is one secret that contains the essence of the sacred science of Vastu in its entirety.
From time immemorial, this cosmic geometrical wonder has been used to design everything from the yagya vedis (fire altars), temples, entire villages, towns and individual houses.
Every minute detail with regards to every single structure is based on these universal principles of the Vastu Purush Mandala architecture.
When we observe the energy fields that develop at different stages of a building – starting from the stage of a vacant plot to the digging of land to the laying of the foundation to the completion of the building and finally to the point when it is inhabited by the people – we unravel the secrets of the Vastu purusha mandala.
The Vastu Mandala is the omnipresent, omnipotent soul of every building. It is based on the principle that man and Universe are analogous in their structure and spirit. Vastu Purush Mandala is thus a Yantra or an image of the Universe.
The Yajurveda reveals –
यथाब्रह्माण्डेतथापिंडे II यथापिंडेतथाब्रह्माण्डे
II Yatha brahmande tatha pinde , Yatha pinde tatha brahmande II
As is the universe, so is the physical body. As is the physical body, so is the universe
Thus, the Vastu Purush Mandala represents the manifest form of the cosmic being. Whatever is in the universe is within us.
The belief that the earth is a living organism, throbbing with life and energy is fundamental to the Vastu Shastra. The Vastu Purush Mandala symbolizes that living energy.. The site for the construction is his field- the Vastu Purush Mandala.
The ‘Purusha’ here refers to the energy, power, soul or the cosmic man. Mandalais the generic name for any plan or chart which symbolically represents the cosmos.
The Vastu Purush Mandala is the core of every structure. You can use it to design a temple, a house, an office and even when you’re planning the Vastu of a factory or a whole city. It constitutes the geometrical and metaphysical basis for every construction.
The Origin of the Vastu Purusha Mandala
The ancient Vastu text of Vishwakarma Prakash reveals an engaging story about the origin of the Vastu Purusha Mandala .The story is about a fierce war between the Gods (devtas ) and the demons (asuras). In this war, Lord Shiva represented the devtas while Andhaka asur was fighting for the asuras.
During the war, some drops of sweat fell on the earth. From those drops emerged a gigantic being that scared both the devtas and the asuras. The devtas and the asuras together took this being to lord Brahma. Lord Brahma called this giant his manas putra (mind-being) and named him Vastu Purush.
The Vastu Purush was then laid down on the earth prostrate with his head towards the North East and feet to the South West. Some of his parts were inhabited by the devtas while some by the asuras.
Lord Brahma then ordered that whoever reveres the Vastu Purush and perform the Vastu Purush pooja while constructing a temple, palace, house, pond, city etc. will be blessed by the devtas. The ones who don’t would be destroyed by the asuras.
Hidden Secrets in Symbols and the Mandala
The above story is of course symbolic because in the Vedas, deep secrets have been woven into stories. To unlock these secrets, the deeper meaning of these symbols and the Mandala has to be understood.
The Vastu Purush Mandala is not necessarily an actual picture of a giant encased in numerous cells or squares. It is a diagrammatic representation through symbols, of the inter-sections and the energy current flows in the subtle body of a human being.
The Purusha, in the Vastu Mandala chart is a term of reference. It serves as a means to locate several parts, within the whole. The body here indicates a sphere of coordinated activities; and each part corresponds to a particular function.
The devtas represent our consciousness and the asuras our ignorance and fear. The war between consciousness and ignorance still goes on each moment within all of us. It is not just a Puranic story, it’s the reality we live in each moment.
The Vastu Purush represents the constant phenomenon inside each building. The Purusha means that which is stable and contains all possibilities of existence within him.
The Vastu Purusha is the soul of the building. As soon as a building comes into existence, all the devtas and asuras occupy their respective positions. As a result, they create the effects and results that the inhabitants experience through their lives while living in that building.
Decoding the Devtas & Asuras of the Vastu Purush Mandala
This above story is depicted diagrammatically in the Vastu Purush Mandala with specific portions allocated hierarchically to each deity based on their attributes and powers.
The division of the built-up space represents different energy fields. We call this process – the Pada Vinyasa (modular grid). In total there are 45 energy fields that constitute the Vastu Purush Mandala. They are as follows :
Lord Brahma occupies the central portion – the Brahmasthan. This portion is the Brahma Vithi. It is the most sacred part of the building. It contains within it, all the possibilities of creation and existence.
First the Shilanyas (foundation stone laying ceremony) is done and the construction of the foundation walls begins by digging the earth. When they reach the plinth level, the divine energy field called Brahma starts to originate right in the center of the plot.
This field of Brahma – the absolute is responsible for the evolution of everything in the universe. This is why the universe is also termed as Brahmaand (the golden egg of Brahma).
Bhudhar (the power of manifestation)
Aryama (the power of connection)
Vivaswaan (the power of revolution or change)
Mitra (the power of inspiration and action)
As the construction of the building progresses and the raising of the walls is done to a height of about 5-8 feet , the energy field of Brahma starts to expand in 4 directions.
Out of the 12 Adityas mentioned in the Bhagavata Puran , the above 4 occupy the 4 sides of Brahma.
We all know that Lord Brahma has 4 heads. Thus these 4 devtas are symbolic of the 4 heads of Brahma. They are responsible for carrying forward the process of creation initiated by Brahma.
After the raising of the walls ( but the casting of the roof is remaining) , the energy fields start to spread in the four diagonal directions viz. North East, South East, South West and North West.
This flow of energies is akin to a tortoise spreading its legs and extending them out of its body.
In each of these directions, two energy fields start to take shape and form. If we draw a line dividing the North East to South West and from North West to South East, one energy fields develops on either side of this dividing line.
The names of these energies are as follows :
NORTH EAST
Apaha ( generates the energies responsible for healing)
Apahavatsa (carriers the healing powers to the occupants)
SOUTH EAST
Savita (energies that help to initiate any process or action)
Savitur (energies that give capibilities to continue those actions and overcome all challenges)
SOUTH WEST
Indra (energies that establish stability and enhance growth)
Indrajaya (the tools and the channels through which one can achieve growth)
NORTH WEST
Rudra (energies responsible for support and ensure flow of activities and life)
Rajyakshma ( energies which uphold the support and stabilise the mind)
A total of 32 energy fields develop in a concentric pattern in the outer periphery of the Vastu Purusha Mandala.
Once the roof is cast in the building, four energy fields start to develop in each of the diagonal directions. Thus, a total of 16 fields develop in the diagonal directions which are as follows:
NORTH EAST
Aditi (the mother of the devtas, this energy field provides security and helps one connect with himself/herself)
Diti (the mother od the asuras, this energy field gives the powers of a wider vision and to see the actual truth of life)
Shikhi (symbolic of a pointed flame. This field gives the power of ideas and the ability to project one’s thoughts to the world )
Parjanya (the giver of rains, this field has the powers to bless the occupants with fertility and fructification of all their wishes)
SOUTH EAST
Brisha (the power of friction needed to initiate any action , thinking or activity)
Akash ( the energy that provides the space for manifestation)
Anila ( the energy of air or vayu, it helps to uplift the fire or push further the actions initiated)
Pusha ( the energy of nourishment, it blocks the path of enemies)
SOUTH WEST
Bhringraj (the energy which extracts nutrients from the food and removes the waste)
Mrigah (the energy that drives curiosity and imparts skills)
Pitra ( the ancestors provide all means of safety and happiness required for existence)
Dauwarik (the safekeeper, represents lord Nandi, the trusted vehicle of lord Shiva. The energy of being genius and highly knowledgeable)
NORTH WEST
Shosha (the power of detoxification from negative emotions)
Papyakshama (the energy which gives addiction, diseases and the feeling of guilt)
Roga ( the energy which provides support in the hour of need)
Naga ( the energy which gives emotional enjoyments and cravings)
Once the super-structure, i.e. the civil work is done but the installation of services like plumbing, electrical connections etc. has not begun , 16 more energy fields start to develop in the four cardinal directions. These are as follows :
EAST
Jayant (the energy which gives the sense of being victorious, it refreshes the mind and body)
Mahendra ( the power of administration and connectivity )
Surya ( the core controller, this energy fields imparts health , fame and farsightedness)
Satya ( the energy which establishes goodwill, status, authenticity and credibility)
SOUTH
Vitatha ( the energy field of falsehood, pretension and the unreal)
Gurhakshat ( the power which binds the mind and defines its limits)
Yama ( the power of expansion, this energy field binds the world in laws)
Gandharva ( the energy of preservation of health and vitality, this is also the energy which governs all kinds of arts and music)
WEST
Sugreev ( the power which grants the ability to receive all knowledge)
Pushpadant ( the power which grants blessings and fulfils all desires )
Varun ( the lord of the seas, this energy field observes and runs the whole world. It is the granter of immortality)
Asur ( the energy field that releases the mind from temptations and gives depth in spirituality )
NORTH
Mukhya ( the chief architect or lord Vishwakarma, this energy field defines the main purpose of the building and also helps in their manifestation)
Bhallat ( the energy field which grants colossal abundance, it magnifies the efforts and their results )
Soma (the energy field of lord Kuber, the lord of all wealth and money. It ensures a smooth flow of money and opportunities)
Bhujag ( the lord of hidden treasures, this energy field is the preserver of medicines. It safeguards the health of the occupants )
Conclusion
This is how the 45 energy fields develop and progress as per the Vastu Purush Mandala. These Vastu Mandala devtas and asuras manifest and move life and contribute to everything that happens in the lives of the occupants.
“The Vastu Purusha Mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The Vastu Purusha Mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.” – Stella Kramrisch ; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I
We can replace the word temple above with any built up structure like a house, factory, office etc. Every constructed structure is really the manifest form of the cosmic being.
The universal equation of the Vastu Purush Mandala has been in existence for thousands of years and will continue till eternity. It is the fundamental principle which will continue to create and run the whole universe both at the macro and the micro level.
Thus, it is advisable to keep the eternal rules of the Vastu Purush Mandala in mind while designing any structure. This will certainly ensure peace, health and prosperity. For More Vastu Guides visit our website.
A LIVING STRUCTURE: FUNDAMENTALS OF HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Naveen Nishant1, Bijay Kumar Das2 1, 2 Department of Architecture and Planning, National Institute of Technology, Patna, India {naveen.ar17@nitp.ac.in, bijay@nitp.ac.in}
JOURNAL OF NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY Volume 25 Issue 04, 2022 ISSN: 1005-3026 https://dbdxxb.cn/
The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala “circle-circumference” or “completion”, is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Buddhism and Hinduism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9) and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36) and Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine square modules. The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts, the central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner. The most important mandala are the Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares and especially the Manduka/ Chandita Mandala of 64 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in the Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet facing west.
An important aspect of the mandala is that when divided into an odd number of squares, or ayugma, its center is constituted by one module or pada and when divided into an even number of squares or yugma, its center is constituted by a point formed by the intersection of the two perpendicular central lines. In spatial terms, the former is sakala or manifest/ morphic and the latter is nishkala or unmanifest/ amorphous. Mandala in siting
The mandala is put to use in site planning and architecture through a process called the Pada Vinyasa. This is a method whereby any site can be divided into grids/ modules or pada. Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various modules, the zoning of the site and disposition of functions in a building are arrived at. Mandala have certain points known as marma which are vital energy spots on which nothing should be built. They are determined by certain proportional relationships of the squares and the diagonals.
A site of any shape can be divided using the Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of divisions on each side. the types of mandalas with the corresponding names of sites is given below.
Sakala(1 square)corresponds to Eka-pada (single divided site) Pechaka(4 squares) corresponds to Dwi-pada (two divided site) Pitha(9 squares) corresponds to Tri-pada (three divided site) Mahaapitha(16 squares) corresponds to Chatush-pada (four divided site) Upapitha(25 squares) corresponds to Pancha-pada (five divided site) Ugrapitha(36 squares) corresponds to Shashtha-pada (six divided site) Sthandila(49 squares) corresponds to sapta-pada (seven divided site) Manduka/ Chandita(64 square) corresponds to Ashta-pada (eight divided site) Paramasaayika(81 squares) corresponds to Nava-pada (nine divided site) Aasana(100 squares) corresponds to Dasa-pada (ten divided site) Mandala in construction The concept of sakala and nishkala are applied in buildings appropriately.
In temples, the concepts of sakala and nishkala are related to the two aspects of the Hindu idea of worship – Sagunopaasana, the supreme as personal God with attributes and Nirgunopaasana, the supreme as absolute spirit unconditioned by attributes. Correspondingly, the Sakala, complete in itself, is used for shrines of gods with form (sakalamoorthy) and to perform yajna (fire rites). However the Nishkala is used for installation of idols without form- nishkalamoorthy– and for auspicious, pure performances. The amorphous center is considered beneficial to the worshippers, being a source of great energy. This could also be used for settlements. In commercial buildings, only odd numbers of modules are prescribed as the nishkala or amorphous center would cause too high a concentration of energy for human occupants. Even here, the Brahmasthana is left unbuilt with rooms organised around. In accordance with the position occupied by the gods in the mandala, guidelines are given for zoning of site and distribution of rooms in a building. Some of these are: North – treasury Northeast – prayer room East – bathroom Southeast – kitchen South – bedroom Southwest – armoury West – dining room Northwest – cowshed
“Essay on the Architecture of the Hindús.”
Ráz, Rám.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1 (1834): 145 – 146.
The Vastu Purusha Mandala is an essential component of the Vastu Shastra and serves as a theoretical and graphical analysis. It is a foundation for creating designs, like a spiritual layout that considers the movement of astronomical objects and spiritual powers. Purusha is the Sanskrit word for vitality, strength, life, or celestial humanity. It also depicts the earth from all four sides, illustrating the perpendicular link between dawn and dusk.
According to Vaastu Purusha’s design, the quad corners’ depiction is known as the Chaturbhuji, and within this, Prithvi Mandala is also represented.
Additionally, the square plan will reveal the positions of the stars, sun, moon, luminaries, and a human’s exact zodiac symbol based on their birth date and location.
In this blog, we will glance at the intriguing history of the Vaastu Purusha Mandala, which arose from the Vastu shastra. And also provide a brief explanation of some factors of the Vastu Purusha Mandala.
Table of Contents
The Origin of the Vastu Purusha Mandala
The Scientific Concept of Vastu Purusha
Significance of Vastu Purusha Mandala
Vastu Purusha Mandala: Elements, Gods, and Deities
Where should I place Vastu Purusha in the House?
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is Vastu Purusha Mandala?
Vastu Purusha Mandala is an ancient Indian architectural concept that helps in designing buildings in harmony with nature and cosmic energies. It’s like a blueprint that represents the energy of a place, with a symbolic figure lying down, head in the northeast and feet in the southwest. This figure is believed to influence the energy flow of the building. Architects and builders use this concept to arrange rooms, doors, and other elements in a way that promotes well-being and prosperity for the people living or working in the building.
“Griha Pravesh Vastu Mandala” refers to the Vastu principles followed during housewarming ceremonies, ensuring auspiciousness and harmony in the new home’s energy flow.
The Origin : Vastu Purusha Mandala
It all begins with Brahma, the Planet’s founder, experimenting with several species. Brahma used all his abilities to create an ideal man-made, and that is how Vaastu Purusha was introduced.
Vishwakarma Prakash’s old Vastu manuscript tells a fascinating narrative about Vastu Purusha Mandala’s origins. The plot revolves around a bloody battle between the Gods, devtas, demons, and asuras. In the battle, God Shiva fought for the devtas, and on the other side, Andhaka Asur fought for the asuras.
When the conflict occurred, a few drops of sweat landed on the ground from Lord Shiva’s head. The devtas and asuras were both terrified when a giant entity appeared from that exact spot, namely, Vaastu Purusha, who started claiming to be Lord Shiva’s son and got approval to eat Triloka, because of his insatiable appetite. Additionally, Triloka is a combination of three worlds the land of God (Swargaloka), the middle men’s kingdom (Mrityuloka), and the house of the Asuras and Devtas(Pataloka). Due to this, the gods were terrified when the enormous creature began eating Trilok and turned to Brahma to preserve the Planet. Furthermore, to save Triloka, Lord Brahma sought the assistance of Astha Dikapalakas, the protector of the eight cardinal points and instructed other Devtas and Asuras to kill him with his head to the northeast and feet to the southwest.
The core part of Vastu Purusha was created by Brahma, which consisted of 44 other deities and 45 energy fields. It symbolizes the diverse facets of our lives inhabiting the other components of our body. The chart conveys the message of worshipping Brahma for your overall well being. According to Hinduism, an individual must perform a Vastu Purusha Mandala planning ritual before partaking in a new endeavour for good luck.
The Scientific of Vastu Purusha
Mandala refers to a map or blueprint that reflects the cosmos figuratively. ‘Purusha’ means celestial man, spirit, relationship, strength, or life.
The Vastu Purusha Mandala is the metaphysical plan that encompasses the journey of supernatural forces and heavenly bodies. It is an essential component of Vastu Shastra. Mathematically, it is a diagrammatic representation of the stars and planetary movements.
Importance of the Vastu Purusha Mandala
Vastu Shastra is a theoretical construct because the earth consists of living or non-living organisms. It also holds vibrations and positive and negative energy. Vastu Purusha Mandala represents a human being’s activity, and its origin has been explained above. Besides, every minute, any inherent magnetic and positive energy fields happen due to Vastu Purusha Mandala principles.
It begins with the excavation of a blank area and ends with the construction process with Brahma and the other 44 deities; therefore, 45 in total are called energy fields. Generally, they gradually occupy their assigned positions as the edifice progresses. Vastu design for residences, workplaces, and industries is determined by Mandala.
Vastu Purusha Mandala: Elements, Gods, and Deities
According to Vastu Purusha Mandala, all living beings are composed of a combination of five elements, namely the sky (Akasha), air (Vayu), water (Jal), fire (Agni), and earth (Prithvi), and these elements are also known as Panchabhutas. Moreover, the world’s surface magnetism and energetic zones support the growth of surrounding architecture, which aids in the creation of the most optimal household. Besides, numerous rooms are built to maintain adequate natural light as well as provide a sense of solitude to relatives.
The Vastu Purusha Mandala diagram splits the globe into squares. All of these fair parts are defended by 45 gods, of which some protect you from internal conflicts, while others help protect you from external factors.
The innermost area of the home is run by Brahma. It is claimed by Vastu that this portion is the gem of the house, which maintains all the positive energy of the surrounding area.
The picture depicts the oldest Vastu Purush sculpture, situated in Rameshwara temple, Karnataka.
Vastu Purush Direction
Regardless of the time of day, living beings face various challenges. The ancient Vastu experts represented the eight cardinal angles who split the 24 hours into eight halves. They constructed and aligned different rooms of a home towards the eight cardinal points so that the occupants might receive tranquility from the sun’s rays based on their location. Some of the directions are as follows:
North-East: Brahma Muhurta time varies from 3 am to 6 am, immediately before sunrise, when the sun points towards the apartment’s north-eastern corner. However, these hours are considered beneficial for yoga, meditation, or study. Moreover, the puja or meditation rooms should be located in the northeast corner.
East: When the sun is in the eastern portion of the home from 6 am to 9 am. However, the east direction is an excellent location for a bathroom and a perfect time for bathing.
South-East: The most excellent time to prepare meals is during the day between 9 am and 12 pm. The sun lies in the home’s southeast corner, which is also an ideal location for a kitchen space.
South: The interval between noon and 3 pm is the best time to recover after lunch, also known as Vishranti. The sun is in the south, which is the perfect time to sleep.
West: 6 pm to 9 pm are ideal for dining, resting, or studying. The sun rises in the west, making this the most acceptable spot for a dining room or sitting area.
North-West: The period to sleep is between 9 pm to midnight; The sun is in the northwest corner of the home. This area is also suitable for a spare bedroom.
North: The time from midnight to 3 am; the sun appears in the north, the time of darkness and secrecy. The northern direction is the best place to hide valuables and keep them protected.
Art and Cosmology in India
Subhash Kak
Patanjali Lecture given at Center for Indic Studies, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, May 5, 2006
Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
Iasef Md Rian a, Jin-Ho Park a, Hyung Uk Ahn a, Dongkuk Chang b a Department of Architecture, Inha University, South Korea b Department of Architecture, Chosun University, South Korea
Received 4 May 2006, Revised 21 July 2006, Accepted 15 January 2007, Available online 23 April 2007.
Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture and Fractal Geometry – ‘Thought Behind Form’
Tanisha Dutta – PhD Research Scholar, Department of Architecture and Planning, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur, India Vinayak S. Adane – Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur, India
In ancient India, town planning was considered an important aspect of architecture and was influenced by religious and cultural beliefs.
The term is used to indicate the arrangement of various components in such a way that the town as such attains significance of a living organism. The town planning was done in scientific footing even in the ancient times.
Planning of a town is dependent on the various factors:
Soil Type
Climatic Conditions
Topography
Wind Orientation
Orientation to Take Advantage of Sun and Wind
The towns were highly influenced by the Site conditions.
The towns were generally located along the bank of the water body.
A flowing stream was preferred for Sanitary requirements.
The towns on the river edge were OBLONG shape; to take maximum advantage of the river.
Main Street (King/ Raja Marg) were aligned East-West to get roads purified by the Sun’s rays; while the shorter roads were along North – South.
Roads around the village called Mangal Vithi were reserved for priests.
A typical Indian town consisted of the following:
Market
Street
Public Buildings
Residences
Temples
Royal Palace
Recreational Centers
Tank
City Fort
1) Classification of Ancient Town Planning
(BASIS – Shape and Size Of the TOWN)
There are quite a number of books written by ancient authors about town planning in India. Also known as ‘VASTU SHASHTRA’ (TOWN PLANNING SCIENCE)
Dandaka
Sarvathobadra
Nandyavarta
Padmaka
Swastika
Prastara
Karmuka
Chaturmukha
i) Dandaka
Dandaka is a Sanskrit term that refers to a type of town plan shaped like a staff or rod. In ancient Indian town planning, different shapes and designs were used to symbolize different things and to promote specific qualities in the built environment.
The Dandaka town plan was characterized by its straight lines and regularity, which symbolized stability and order. This type of plan was often used in the design of military fortifications and other structures that required a strong and orderly layout. The Dandaka plan was also believed to promote positive energy and to enhance the functionality of the structures it was used in.
Dandaka, Literally means a village that resemble, a staff. Its streets are straight and cross each other at right angles at the center, running west to east, and south to north.
This type of town plan provides for two main entrance gates and is generally adopted for the formation of SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES.
Village is Rectangular / Square with street width of street varies from 1-5 danda.
Village office located in the east.
Female deity (Gramadevata) will generally be located outside the village, whereas Male deities in the northern portion.
ii) Sarvathobadra
Sarvatobadra is a Sanskrit term that refers to a type of town plan shaped like an umbrella. In ancient Indian town planning, the umbrella shape symbolized protection and shelter. The Sarvatobadra town plan was characterized by its circular shape and radiating streets, which provided a sense of harmony and balance to the built environment.
This type of plan was often used in the design of religious and spiritual structures, such as temples and ashrams, where people sought refuge and peace. The circular shape of the Sarvatobadra plan was also believed to promote positive energy and to enhance the functionality of the structures it was used in.
This type is applicable to larger villages and towns, which have to be constructed on oblong or square sites.
The whole town should fully be occupied with HOUSES of various descriptions that should be inhabited by all classes of people.
Templedominates the village.
iii) Nandyavarta
Nandyavarta is a Sanskrit term that refers to a type of town plan that is circular with a central square and streets radiating outwards. This type of town plan was commonly used in ancient India, particularly in the design of cities and large settlements. The circular shape of the Nandyavarta town plan symbolized unity and completeness, while the central square served as a gathering place for the community.
The radiating streets provided easy access to different parts of the city and promoted connectivity between the various neighborhoods and areas. The Nandyavarta town plan was also believed to promote positive energy and to enhance the functionality of the structures it was used in.
Mainly used for construction of TOWNS and not villages.
Adopted for sites which are either circular or square in shape with 3000-4000 houses.
The streets run parallel to the central adjoining streets with the temple of the presiding deity in the center of the town.
Temple of the presiding deity at the center of the town.
This name is derived from a flower, the form of which is followed in this layout.
iv) Padmaka (Lotus Petals)
Padmaka is a Sanskrit term that refers to a type of town plan shaped like a lotus flower. In ancient Indian town planning, the lotus flower was a symbol of purity, enlightenment, and beauty. The Padmaka town plan was characterized by its circular shape, with streets radiating outwards in a petal-like pattern.
This type of plan was often used in the design of religious and spiritual structures, such as temples and ashrams, where people sought refuge and peace. The circular shape of the Padmaka plan was believed to promote positive energy and to enhance the functionality of the structures it was used in, while the petal-like pattern of the streets added to the overall aesthetic appeal of the built environment.
This type of plan was practiced for building of the TOWNS with fortress all around.
Pattern of the PLAN resembles petals of lotus radiating outwards from the center.
The city used to be an island surrounded by water.
No scope for expansion.
v) Swastika
Swastika is an ancient Hindu symbol that is widely used in Hindu architecture and town planning. The word “swastika” comes from the Sanskrit word “svastika,” which means “good fortune” or “well-being.” The symbol consists of four arms that are bent at right angles, arranged in a cross-like pattern. The arms are typically of equal length and can be arranged clockwise or counterclockwise.
In Hinduism, the swastika is a powerful symbol of good luck and prosperity. It is often used as a decorative element in Hindu temples, homes, and other structures to bring good fortune and to ward off evil spirits. In ancient Indian town planning, the swastika was used to mark the entrance of a building or town, and to provide a visual representation of the Hindu belief in the cyclical nature of life.
This type of plan contemplates some diagonal streets dividing the site into certain triangular plots.
The site may be of any shape.
The town is surrounded by a rampart wall, with a MOAT at its foot.
Two main streets cross each other at the center running north to south and west to east.
Temple is at the centre.
Jain temple is in south-west cell.
vi) Prastara
Prastara is a Sanskrit term that refers to the arrangement of tiles or stones used in the construction of floors or pavements. In ancient Indian architecture and town planning, the prastara was an important decorative element that was used to create intricate and beautiful patterns on the floors of buildings.
The characteristic feature of this plan is that the site may be either square or rectangular but not triangular or circular.
The sites are set apart or the very rich, rich, middle class and poor.
The size of the site increases according to the capacity of each to purchase or build upon.
The main roads are much wider when compared to those of other patterns.
The town may or may not be surrounded by a fort.
vii) Karmuka
This refers to a town plan that is shaped like a bow.
This plan is suitable for the place where the site of the town is in the form of a bow or semi-circular or parabolic and mostly applied for towns located at sea shores or riverbanks.
The main streets of the town run from north to south or east to west and the cross streets run at right angles to them. This divides the whole area into BLOCKS.
Female deity (the presiding deity) is installed in the temple built in any convenient place.
viii) Chaturmukha
Chaturmukha is a Sanskrit term that refers to a building or structure that has four faces or entrances. In ancient Indian town planning and architecture, Chaturmukha structures were used for a variety of purposes, including as temples, gateways, and other religious or secular buildings.
The four faces of a Chaturmukha structure symbolized the four cardinal directions, and were believed to provide protection and access to the building from all directions. The four entrances also allowed for easy flow of people and goods in and out of the structure, promoting connectivity and accessibility.
This is applicable to all types of towns (from the largest town to the smallest village).
The site may be either square or rectangular having four faces.
The town is laid out east to west lengthwise with four main streets.
The temple of the presiding deity is always at the center.
These principles of town planning in ancient India helped create well-organized, functional, and beautiful towns and cities that were capable of supporting their populations and promoting a sense of community and well-being.
Manasara Vastushastra is an elaborate treatise on town planning in ancient India. It is written by a sage named Mansara. It is one of the 5 documents that exists now which deals with Vastu Sasthram. There are several chapters in this book on town planning and construction of buildings. Vastu Sastra has laid strong emphasis on the selection of a proper site for establishing a new village, town or a city. A traditional city designed according to the principles of sacred geometry was based on cosmological theories. – Vaastu Purush Mandala. Silpasasthras refers to four distinct categories of habitation settlements within the forts and fortified cities; 1. Janabhavanas : houses for common mass. 2. Rajbhavanas : palaces and gorgeous mansions for ruling class. 3. Devabhavanas : religious shrines. 4. The public buildings such as public rest house, public gardens, public libraries, public tents, reservoirs, and wells. The Manasara describes that these sites for establishing a city used to be determined from its smell, taste, shape, direction, sound and touch. It speaks of the street that is on the border of the street (Mangalaveedhi) and the street that surrounds the Brahmasthana (Brahmaveedhi) It says that an ideal city should be placed in such a local geographical position where various kinds of trees, water bodies, rivers, plants, shrubs, green vegetation cover, including cattle should be present in great numbers. If a river adjoins the site it should run from left to right or West to East or South to North. Also the site should have water table at a depth equal to a man’s height with his arms raised above his head. The site should also comply with moderate temperature during summers and winters. If these parameters were not met with, the land would be rejected. Varanasi is located in such a way that the river flows from south to north.
Patna (Pataliputra) is located in such a way that the river flows from left to right. Opposite side of the river is not part of the main city. According to the shapes there are eight different types of settlements mentioned. Dandaka Sarvathobhadra Nandyavarta Padmaka Swastika Prastara Karmuka Chaturmukha
1. Dandaka Streets are straight and cross each other at right angles at the centre Has 4 gates on four sides Rectangular / square Width of the street varies from one ‐ Five danda (1 danda is 1-2 meters) 2 transverse street at the extremities Have single row of houses The village offices located in the east. 2. Sarvathobhadra This type of town plan is applicable to larger villages and towns, which have to be constructed on square sites. According to this plan, the whole town should be fully occupied by houses of various descriptions and inhabited by all classes of people. The temple at the central area dominates the village 3. Nandyavarta Commonly used for the construction of townsand not for villages. It is generally adopted for the sites either circular or square in shape 3000 – 4000houses The streets run parallel to the central adjoining streets with the temple of the presiding deity in the center of the town. “Nandyavarta” is the name of a flower, the form of which is followed. 4. Padmaka This type of plan was practiced for building of the towns with fortress all round. The pattern of the plan resembles the petals of lotus radiating outwards from the center. The city used to be practically an island surrounded by water, having no scope for expansion 5. Swastika Contemplates some diagonal streets dividing the site into rectangular plots. The site need not be marked out into a square or rectangle and it may be of any shape. A rampart wall surrounds the town, with a moat at its foot filled with water. 2 main streets cross each other at the center, running S to N and W to E. 6. Prastara The site may be either square or rectangular bu t not triangular or circular. The sites are set apart for the poor, the middle class, the rich and the very rich, the sizes of the sites increasing according to the capacity of each to purchase or build upon. The main roads are much wider compared to those of other patterns. The town may or may not be surrounded by a fort. 7. Karmuka Suitable for the place where the site of the town is in the form of a bow or semi‐circular or parabolic and mostly applied for towns located on the seashore or river banks. The main streets of the town run from N to S or E to W and the cross streets run at right‐angles to them, dividing the whole area into blocks. The presiding deity, commonly a female deity, is installed in the temple build in any convenient place 8. Chaturmukha Applicable to all town sstarting from the largest town to the smallest village. The site may be either square or rectangular having four faces. The town is laid out east to west lengthwise, with four main streets. The temple of the presiding deity will be always at the center
Topic – Ancient and Modern Town Planning in India
Invited Lecture at Yangon Technology University (YTU), Yangon, Myanmar:
Presentation · January 2018 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.28448.23041
Prafulla Parlewar School of Planning and Architecture
Maharishi Vedic Architecture and Quality of Life: An International Mixed Methods Study of Lived Experience
Subject Areas : Architecture
Lee Fergusson 1 (Professor of Vedic Science, Education and the Environment, Maharishi Vedic Research Institute, Gold Coast, Australia) Sanford Nidich 2 (Director, Center for Social-Emotional Health and Consciousness, Fairfield, Iowa, USA) Anna Bonshek 3 (Professor of Vedic Science, Art and Vedic Architecture, Maharishi Vedic Research Institute, Gold Coast, Australia) Randi Nidich 4 (Director, Center for Social-Emotional Health and Consciousness, Fairfield, Iowa, USA)
Received: 2020-07-08 Accepted : 2020-08-06 Published : 2020-10-01
anthropologist, has written that: “Those who believe the ancient peoples of Asia were incapable of crossing the ocean have completely lost sight of what the literary sources tell us concerning their ships and their navigation. Many of the peoples of Southeastern Asia had adopted Indian Hindu-Buddhist civilizations. The influences of the Hindu-Buddhist culture of southeast Asia in Mexico and particularly, among the Maya, are incredibly strong.
The term Navigation originates from the Sanskrit word “Navgati” (meaning science of sailing) (Nav – gati) Nav means sailor or ship and gati means pace or speed in Sanskrit.
With great zeal Indian historians pointed out that, in the past, Hindu civilization had extended far beyond the present boundaries of India. It had included not only Southeast Asia but extended as far as Indonesia (Bali and Java), the Philippines and perhaps it has influence even to South America, is something the world may have to think again, with the strong evidences emerging with time.
== The question arises whether the ancient Hindus of Indonesia had contact with Mayan civilisation across the pacific which is evident from the pyramid constructions in Indonesia very similar to that of the Mayans. I shall share some information of what I collected from my reading. ==
The strongest, and indeed a hard piece of evidence established for trans-Pacific contact is the use of a particular technique for the manufacture of bark paper, common to China, Southeast Asia, Indonesia and Mesoamerica.
Michael Coe (2001a:58) in his book says that knowledge of this paper-making method “was diffused from eastern Indonesia to Mesoamerica at a very early date.” He further argues that since bark paper was used to make books, information may have been exchanged between Pacific and Mesoamerican peoples.
The Indonesian Hindu temples Resembling Mayan Pyramids
Candi Sukuh Hindu Temple dedicated to Bhima of Mahabharata in Indonesia
Candi Sukuh Hindu Temple dedicated to Bhima of Mahabharata in Indonesia strikes a disquieting alien chord with its flat topped step pyramid and its Mayan calendar carvings.
The religious structures in Java are commonly called Candis, a term which originally meant a commemorative building.
In general layout, the temple conforms to the plan of most other Hindu temples. There are three precincts, consisting of three concentric terraces. However, where most temples would have a large square shrine, Candi Sukuh has a pyramid reminiscent of Mayan structures from Central America.
Another new discovery is a Candi-Sukuh like pyramid and even a stone sphinx on a remote island off New Guinea. The site is known to even a nearby logging company, but no-one to the outside world in general. This giant pyramid has only been seen by helicopter pilots and a few natives of the island. It is another example of Hindu/Maya connection in the early pacific. So far no photographs of the site have come forth. No one yet knows the age of this New Guinea pyramid and its “sphinx” on a remote island near the Solomons.
Reference : Discovering the Mysteries of Ancient America: Lost History And Legends, Unearthed And Explored. BOOK Authored by Frank Joseph and Zechariah Sitchin.
The Hindus are also the only older people besides the Mayans who are known to have employed the concept of zero in their mathematics.
—-
Ancient Architects Employed Analogous Design Doctrines and Masonry Methods
Sri V. Ganapati Sthapati, has just measured with tape, compass and a lay-out story pole, the Mayan structures. He has confirmed that the layout of these structures, locations for doors, windows, proportions of width to length, roof styles, degree of slopes for roofs, column sizes, wall thicknesses, etc., all conform completely to the principles and guidelines as prescribed in the Vastu Shastras of India. Residential layouts are identical to those found in Mohenjodaro ruins of India. The temple layouts are identical to those that he is building today and that can be found all over India.”
Ganapati Sthapati is India’s foremost traditional temple architect and an expert in sculpture and stone construction to personally examine these ancient buildings. Sthapati is the architect of the San Marga Iraivan Temple being built at Kauai Aadheenam, Hawaii.
Sthapati was accompanied by two California builders and architects Deva Rajan and Thamby Kumaran. The trio began 11,000 feet high in central Peru at the Incan site of Machu Picchu. Sthapati believes, Indian architecture originated from the Mayan people of Central America. In Indian history, Mayan appears several times, most significantly as the author of Mayamatam, “Concept of Mayan” which is a Vastu Shastra, a text on art, architecture and town planning. The traditional date for this work is 8,000bce.
The fundamental principle of Mayan’s architecture and town planning is the “module.” Buildings and towns are to be laid out according to certain multiples of a standard unit. Floor plans, door locations and sizes, wall heights and roofs, all are determined by the modular plan. More specifically, Mayan advocated the use of an eight-by-eight square, for a total of 64 units, which is known as the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The on-site inspection by Sthapati was to determine if the Incan and Mayan structures followed a modular plan and also intended to examine the stone working technology-his particular field of expertise.
Sthapati was born in 1927 into a family whose ancestors, members of the aboriginal tribe of Viswakarmas, built the great temple at Tanjore in the 10th century ce at the request of Raja Raja Chola. He learned the craft from his father, Sri M. Vaiydyanatha Sthapati and his uncle, Sri M. Sellakkannu Sthapati. He spent 27 years as head of the Government College of Architecture and Sculpture in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, and is responsible for India’s significant resurgence in the ancient art of stone carving. After his retirement in 1988, he continued building temples and founded the Vastu Vedic Research Foundation to explore the ancient origins of the temple craftsmen. He is responsible for the construction of dozens of temples in India, and others in Chicago, Washington D.C., Kentucky, Boston, Baltimore, San Francisco, and Hawaii in the USA as well as in the UK, Singapore, Fiji, Malaysia, Mauritius and the Seychelles.
Machu Pichu He proceeded to measure the buildings in detail and discovered each to be built on a module-based plan, following the system of eight-by-eight squares. The module method was followed within small fractions of an inch. The buildings were oriented toward certain points of the compass. Also the lengths of buildings were never more than twice the width.
Saqsayhuman, an Incan site dated from 400 bce to 1400 ce Here are the famous stone walls made of rocks weighing up to 160 tons and fitted together so expertly that a knife blade cannot be put in any joint. Sthapati pointed out small knobs left on their faces, used for the use of levers, the exact same method used in India to move large stones. Thirty to forty men moved these large rocks with this method, he explained to the guide’s astonishment.
He observed details of the stone working being identical to what is practiced in India, such as the method of quarrying stones by splitting off slabs, the jointing and fitting of stones, the use of lime mortar, leveling with a plumb bob line and triangle, and the corbeling for the roofs. Corbeling is the method by which stones are drawn in layer by layer until they meet or nearly meet to allow a roof slab to be placed on top.
Sthapati considers the similarity of this technology to that used in India to be very significant. The use of the horizontal lintel and the absence of the arch are additional noteworthy points of correspondence between the two traditions.
The Mayan Yucatan Peninsula Having arrived at Chichén Itzá in time for the summer equinox on March 21st. The trio got to witness the moment of sunset at equinox, a shadow is cast by the steps of the Pyramid which creates the image of a serpent’s body which joins a stone carving of a serpent’s head at the bottom of the stair case. It is a stunning demonstration of Mayan astronomical and architectural precision.
The trio got back to work and tape measured and closely examined the Pyramid of the Castle. It too conformed to the Vastu Vedic principles of Mayan. The temple structure at the top was exactly 1/4th of the base. And the stepped pyramid design derived from a three-dimensional extension of the basic eight-by-eight grid system. The temple room at the top was also modular in design, with the wall thickness determining the size of doorways, location of columns, thickness of columns and the width and length of the structure.
From Chichén Itzá, they traveled on to Uxmal where they observed the snake and “bindu” designs on the wall faces. They were astounded by the thousands of pyramids at Tikal and Uxacturn in Guatemala, all laid out to conform to a grid pattern and oriented in astronomically significant directions.
Use of lime mortar for all of the stone and brick buildings, can been seen in the monumental creations in Mahabalipuram and the stone temples of Tanjor and Gangai Konda Choleswram in Tamil Nadu. The outer surfaces were plastered, embellishments worked out in lime mortar, then painted. This method was strongest among the Mayas at Tikal and Uaxactún, where all of the structures once had a plaster coating painted with many colors.
Sri Ganapati Sthapati is vigorously continuing his research and is open to suggestions one may contact him with queries or information at :
Vastu Vedic Research Foundation, Plot A-1, H.I.G. Colony, 1st Main Road (New Beach Road), Thiruvalluvar Nagar, Thiruvanmiyur, Madras 600 041, India.
Vastushastra System – Measurements and Proportions
Prof. S. K. Gupta1 1Dean & Director, Amity University Haryana, Panchgaon, Manesar, Gurgaon
International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor:6.887 Volume 5 Issue X1, November 2017- Available at http://www.ijraset.com
ANALYSIS OF FACTS, UNDERSTANDINGS & USES OF VASTU SHASTRA IN HEALTHCARE
Dr. Karthikeyan S Affiliation: Yukan Energetical Vastu, Institute of Scholars & Indian Science Congress Association, Govt. of India DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10061488 Published Date: 01-November-2023
International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research ISSN 2348-3164 (online) Vol. 11, Issue 4, pp: (215-226), Month: October – December 2023, Available at: http://www.researchpublish.com
Vedic Physics includes a theory of the emergence of matter from the invisible Substratum of Thaamic matter, into either the stable 8 x 8 Satwa Material or the dynamic 9 x 9 Raja form. Matter emerges in two dimensions from the Substratum, emerging at the very center of a circle, with the extrusion of tiny particles of Dark Matter through a central hole, at the logarithm of e, or the Euler Number. The extrusion of matter through the central hole exerts force on peripheral areas. This phenomenon helps to explain why Brahma is considered as the center of the Vedic Square, or the 9 x 9 Vastu Shastra, as well as the central No. 5 Square in the 3 x 3 Magic Square of Chinese divination, including Qi Men Dun Jia.
Quintessence of Vastu Art and Architecture: Forms of Spirit and Atoms of Consciousness
A Shilpi Sp«aks-6
TEMPLES OF Space SCIENCE
Dr. V.Ganapati Sthapati
English version of Tamil text By
Dr. S.P. Sabharathnam
REVELATION OF AN ESOTERIC GEOMETRY OF NORTH INDIAN HINDU TEMPLES
E-Book (PDF) Availability: Published ISBN: 978-90-04-49237-0 Publication: 15 Nov 2021
Hardback Availability: Published ISBN: 978-90-04-12902-3 Publication: 30 Jun 2003
Michael W. Meister, M. A. Dhaky and Krishna Deva (ed.): Encyclopaedia of Indian temple architecture: North India: Foundations of North Indian style c. 250 b.c.–a.d. 1100. I: xvii, 422 pp. 158 figures, 15 maps; II: viii, 778 plates.
New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, and Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009
Kashmiri Temples: a Typological and Aedicular Analysis
Adam Hardy
2019, Indology’s Pulse: Arts in Context (Essays Presented to Doris Meth Srinivasan in Admiration of Her Scholarly Research) edited by Corinna Wessels-Mevissen and Gerd J. R. Mevissen
Chakshudana or Opening the Eyes Seeing South Asian Art Anew Edited by Pika Ghosh and Pushkar Sohoni First published 2024 ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 20783- 4 (hbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 27121- 7 (pbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 003- 29147- 3 (ebk)
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Constructing Community: Tamil Merchant Temples in India and China, 850-1281
This dissertation studies premodern temple architecture, freestanding sculpted stones, and Tamil language inscriptions patronized by south Indian merchants in south India and China. Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries, Indian Ocean trade was at its apex, connecting populations on European and Asian continents through complex interlocking networks. Southern India’s Tamil region, in particular, has been described as the fulcrum of the Indian Ocean circuit; however, knowledge of intra-Asian contact and exchange from this period has been derived mostly from Arabic and Chinese sources, which are abundant in comparison with the subcontinent’s dearth of written history. My project redresses this lacuna by investigating the material culture of Tamil merchants, and aims to recover their history through visual evidence, authored by individuals who left few written traces of their voyages across the Indian Ocean.
The arguments of my dissertation are based primarily on unpublished and unstudied monuments and inscriptions, weaving together threads from multiple disciplines–art history, literature, epigraphy, and social theory–and from across cultures, the interconnected region of the eastern Indian Ocean and the South China Seas, spanning the Sanskritic, Tamil, Malay, and Sinocentric realms. My dissertation challenges traditional narratives of Indian art history that have long attributed the majority of monumental architecture to royal patrons, focusing instead on the artistic production of cosmopolitan merchants who navigated both elite and non-elite realms of society. I argue that by constructing monuments throughout the Indian Ocean trade circuit, merchants with ties to southern India’s Tamil region formulated a coherent group identity in the absence of a central authority.
Similar impulses also are visible in merchants’ literary production, illustrated through several newly translated panegyric texts, which preface mercantile donations appearing on temple walls in the modern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Moreover, my work analyzes the complex processes of translation visible in literary and material culture commissioned by merchants, resulting from inter-regional and intercultural encounters among artisans, patrons, and local communities. Rather than identifying a monolithic source for merchants’ artistic innovations, in each chapter I demonstrate the multiple ways in which merchants employed visual codes from different social realms (courtly, mercantile, and agrarian) to create their built environments. In Chapter Four, I provide a detailed reconstruction and historical chronology of a late thirteenth century temple in Quanzhou, coastal Fujian Province, and southeastern China, which both echoes and transforms architectural forms of contemporaneous temples in India’s Tamil region.
Piecing together over 300 carvings discovered in the region in light of archaeological and art historical evidence, I develop a chronology of the temple’s history, and propose that Ming forces destroyed the temple scarcely a century after its creation. In Chapter Three, I interpret stone temples patronized by the largest south Indian merchant association, the Ainnurruvar, as being integral to their self-fashioning in India and abroad. While the temples do not project a merchant identity per se, I show that they employ an artistic vocabulary deeply entrenched in the visual language of the Tamil region. Chapter Two looks at other forms through which merchants created a shared mercantile culture, including literary expressions and freestanding sculptural stones. These texts demonstrate that merchants engaged in both elite and non-elite artistic production. Chapter One analyzes the distribution, content, and context of Tamil merchant sponsored inscriptions within the Indian Ocean circuit, focusing on the modern regions of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh. An appendix offers new translations of important Tamil language mercantile inscriptions discovered throughout south India.
“Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple Superstructures.”
The Construction Geometry of Early Javanese Temples
David Beynon, Deakin University
Sambit Datta, Curtin University
Papers presented to the 30th Annual Conference of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand held on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, July 2-5, 2013. http://www.griffith.edu.au/conference/sahanz-2013/
Archive: The University of Pennsylvania houses a photographic archive of Indian art and architecture (now over 100,000 photographs) as part of the W. Norman Brown South Asia Reference Room on the fifth floor west end of Van Pelt library. To gain access, contact the South Asia bibliographer, David Nelson, or his staff. This Archive should be an integral part of your work this semester.
Intention: This seminar will both introduce you in the remarkable variety of India’s architectural accomplishments and encourage you to discuss the broader issues of how architecture can be designed to express meaning. In the past I have sometimes asked students to divide into groups to work together to frame one area of India’s architecture. Categories have been: Early Indian architecture; South Indian architecture; North Indian architecture; early Islamic architecture in India.
This year, I propose to organize readings around a variety of approaches and methodologies: issues of construction, translation of architectural forms into new materials, architectural symbolism, typology and chronology, and praxis (the use and survival of buildings over time).
I will ask you to work collectively, but on different aspects or examples of the general area, reporting in class on the literature, issues, ideas, and substance appropriate to each.
Books: Four books have been ordered by the Penn Book Center (130 S. 34th St.):
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Essays in Early Indian Architecture, ed. Michael W. Meister, Oxford University Press, 1993. (This may now be out of print, but is available in the Fine Arts Library reserve.)
Richard H. Davis, Lives of Indian Images, Princeton, 1997 (Princeton University Press paperback).
James C. Harle, The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (Pelican History of Art). New York, 1986.
George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, New York, 1977 (Chicago University Press paperback).
Other books of interest will be placed on Reserve in the Fischer Fine Arts Library and the South Asia Reading Room in Van Pelt, near the photo archive.
Course assignments: In addition to participation in class discussion, students will be asked to prepareshort reports on reading for presentation in class and to choose an area for research leading to a final presentation and paper.
________________________________
Brief Bibliography of General Surveys:
Batley, Claude. The Design Development of Indian Architecture, 3rd rev. enl. ed., London, 1973.
Brown, Percy. Indian Architecture, vol. 1. Buddhist and Hindu periods, vol. 2. Islamic period, 5th ed., Bombay, 1965-68.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. The Arts and Crafts of India and Ceylon. London, 1913.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. History of Indian and Indonesian Art. New York, 1927.
Fergusson, James. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, London, 1876; rev. and ed. by James Burgess, 2 vol., London, 1910.
Herdeg, Klaus. Formal Structure in Indian Architecture, preface by Balkrishna Doshi, New York: Rizzoli, 1990 (1978).
Mayamata. An Indian Treatise on Housing, Architecture, and Iconography, trans. by Bruno Dagens, Delhi, 1985.
Pereira, José. Elements of Indian Architecture, Delhi, 1987.
Tadgell, Christopher. The History of Architecture in India: From the Dawn of Civilization to the End of the Raj, London: Architecture Design and Technology Press, 1990.
Volwahsen, Andreas. Living Architecture: Indian and Living Architecture: Islamic Indian, New York, 1969-70.
Purusha Sukta (Text, Transliteration, Translation and Commentary)
AUTHOR: S.K. RAMACHANDRA RAO PUBLISHER: SRI AUROBINDO KAPALI SASTRY INSTITUTE OF VEDIC CULTURE LANGUAGE: SANSKRIT TEXT WITH TRANSLITERATION AND ENGLISH TRANSLATION EDITION: 2014 ISBN: 8179940462 PAGES: 96
The work presented here advances a hypothetical reconstruction of the planning and programming of the building site, the executive process, the construction and decoration, and ultimately the deconsecration and abandonment of an ancient Buddhist stupa. The chronological context is that of the mid-first to the early fourth century CE. The geographical context is the fertile and rich Swat valley, at the foot of the Karakoram-Hindukush, to the north of the ancient region of Gandhara (today in Pakistan). The study is based on archaeological excavation data conducted over several seasons, including the most recent seasons from 2011 to 2014. During the latter excavations, conducted by the Author, new data that allowed additions to be made to Domenico Faccenna’s previous studies were brought to light. Among these new insights, there are some of great importance that indicate the existence of a large central niche at the top of the stupa’s upper staircase, the key to the stupa’s figurative frieze. This frieze, which represents one of the highest moments of Gandharan Buddhist art, still imitated centuries later by celebrated artists in inner Asia (at Miran), is the product of a sculptural school guided with a sure hand by an anonymous Master, to whom the responsibility for the entire project should be attributed, architect, master builder and workshop master all in one. The existence of this so-called ‘Master of Saidu’, admirably intuited and elaborated by Faccenna, finds in this volume, if possible, further support, demonstrating the capacity of the archaeological school inaugurated by Faccenna himself to answer with ongoing excavation data the many questions that the enigma of Gandhara art still poses to scholars all over the world.
This book is the first volume of a new book series, Marco Polo: Studies in Global Europe-Asia Connections.
The book series, sponsored by the Department of Asian and North African Studies through the Marco Polo Research Centre for Global Europe-Asia Connections, is designed to publish up-to-date research that is supported by the Centre. In dialogue with the intellectual tradition of the Centre, our research interests are vast, spanning manifold spaces (from Japan to the Mediterranean Sea), times (from Neolithic times to today, and possibly the future), and themes (from modern geopolitics to religious identities to climate change to archaeological sites), with particular attention to trans-Eurasian interactions. This emphasis on intercultural contact and exchange, especially at the crossroads of the ostensible European-Asian divide, is evoked through the title of the series: indeed, Marco Polo travelled all the way from Venice to Beijing at the end of the 13th century, engaging with many different political contexts, nations, and civilisations along the land and sea routes later jointly known as the Silk Road (or, better, Silk Roads). This concept, with its underlying reference to the exchange of things and ideas across societies, is a historical phenomenon of great significance associated with a distant past; however, the spectre of the Silk Road(s) has never rested. The People’s Republic of China announced the ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’ (now known as the ‘Belt and Road Initiative’) in 2013. In other words, the distant historical traditions of the Silk Road(s) continue to penetrate discursive reality in our own day and age. Globalisation – with its various and contradictory connotations – is an overarching motif that links the Silk Roads of the past and the present. Inspired by the famous Venetian merchant, our book series prioritises studies that are inquisitive, bold, and dynamic, with a preference for transcultural and interdisciplinary studies. We welcome manuscripts that are grounded in rigorous scholarship and speak to international academic conversations within and across diverse disciplines, including history, international relations, economics, environmental studies, literature, languages, archaeology, art history, philosophy, religion, anthropology, geography, music, social sciences, and the digital humanities. The books in this series will focus on specific research topics but will range from single-authored monographs to edited volumes with multiple authors, each contributing a chapter to an organically conceived whole.
Buddhist Architecture in the Swat Valley, Pakistan. Stupas, Viharas, a Dwelling Unit Domenico Faccenna, Piero Spagnesi
(BraDypUS Communicating Cultural Heritage, Bologna 2015)
The volume reports an accurate survey of the sacred Buddhist Gandharan architecture in the Swat Valley, carryed out by one of the main experts in the past culture of that territory, Domenico Faccenna, in association with Piero Spagnesi.
The work presents typological classification (stupas, viharas, columns, minor complementary structures) and accurate description of the monuments, and the various complexes to which they belong (sacred areas, monasteries, groups of dwelling units for monks, water supply and defence systems). The analysis is intended to touch upon numerous aspects: construction techniques, materials, measures, plasters, proportions, pictorial decorations and gilding, taking into consideration the architecture as a whole, in its spaces, volumes and relative design themes.
Buddhist Architecture in the Swat Valley, Pakistan. Stupas, Viharas, a Dwelling Unit, by Domenico Faccenna and Piero Spagnesi, with the collaboration of Luca M. Olivieri and foreword by Marco Mancini and Adriano Rossi. ACT-FIELD SCHOOL PROJECT Reports and Memoirs (series), special volume.
2nd digital edition, originally published in 2014 in Pakistan (Sang e-Meel). The content remains unvaried.
This stupa was located in Saidu Sharif, Pakistan and is among a unique group of Gandharan stupas that boasts an impressive visual arts programme. Given the wealthy Greco-Bactrian artistic tradition in the region, it is important to note that this stupa represents one of the earliest attestations of the stupa with columns (Filigenzi, 130). This canonical type was amalgamated into Buddhist architectural forms through the “mandalic concept of ritual space” (Filigenzi,130). Overall, this stupa superstructure consisted of “five tiers with the first a square plinth, the second a circular plinth, the third and four the two circular drums, and the fifth a dome; it is surmounted by a solid harmika and an exceedingly tall multi-tiered yasti-chattra.” (Le, 175) Attuned to the Hellenistic connection, it is likely that the two circular drums were decorated with both Corinthian pilasters and narrative reliefs panels that depicted scenes from the Buddha’s life (Filigenzi, 113). In contrast to traditional Indian stupas, it appears that here the Gandharan architects have “consciously proportioned their harmikas to be of an equal height as the stupa body” (Le, 175). All together the stupa’s total height measured approximately 27m. The building material are believed to be soapstone ashlar and in line with Gandharan building practice, the stupa was coated in fine plaster to “shield it from water penetration and give it a smooth appearance” (Le, 175) What is noticeable at Saidu Sharif is the emergence of the square-based stupa. This type was originally remarked upon at Piprahwa, as we have seen earlier, however the additions of columns, the emphasis on verticality and the reduction in size of the dome are all indicative of Asokan, Mathuran and Greco-Roman architectural features. (Le, 176). Overall, Saidu Sharif is an example of the early Gandharan stupa type.
Le, Huu Phuoc. Buddhist architecture. Lakeville, MN: Grafikol, 2010. Print.
“Orientalised Hellenism versus Hellenised Orient:Reversing the Perspective on Gandharan Art Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia,”
The cultural context in which the term “Gandhāra” is used initially refers to Vedic geography and then to the administrative limits of the homonymous Achaemenid satrapy.
The most reliable information referring to the Middle Holocene period, in which the Gandhāran region must have met a climatically optimal phase during which domesticated rice was introduced to Kashmir and Swat through the trans-Himalayan corridors (early 2nd millennium BCE or earlier). Toward the end of the 2nd millennium, northern Gandhāra features a rather coherent settlement phenomenon marked by large graveyards, mainly with inhumations, which were labeled by previous scholarship as the “Gandhāra Grave Culture” (1200–900 BCE). In this phase among the major cultural markers, the introduction of iron technology is noteworthy.
The historic phases in Gandhāra are marked by an initial urban phase in Gandhāra (500–150 BCE), sometimes referred to as a “second urbanization,” on the evidence mainly from Peshawar, Charsadda I, Barikot, and Bhir Mound (Taxila I). Mature urban phases (150 BCE–350 CE) are defined based on the restructuring of old cities, and new urban foundations during the phases of contact historically defined by the Indo-Greek and Śaka dynasties, followed by the Kushans (Peshawar, Charsadda II, Barikot, Sirkap, or Taxila III). The artistic phenomenon known as the Buddhist “art of Gandhāra” started toward the end of the 1st century BCE and lasted until the 4th century CE. The beginning of this art is best attested in that period in Swat, where schist of exceptional quality is largely available. At the beginning of the 1st century CE, the iconic and figurative symbols of Indian Buddhism acquire a narrative form, which is the major feature of the Buddhist art of Gandhāra. The subsequent art and architecture of Buddhist Gandhāra feature large sanctuaries richly decorated, and monasteries, documented in several “provinces” of Gandhāra throughout the Kushan period, from the late 1st century CE to mid/end-3rd century CE. In this period Buddhist sanctuaries and urban centers developed together, as proved both in Peshawar valley, in Swat, and at Taxila.
After the urban crisis (post-300 CE)—which went hand in hand with the crisis of the centralized Kushan rule—stratigraphic excavations have so far registered a significant thinning of the archaeological deposits, with a few exceptions. Besides coins deposited in coeval phases of Buddhist sanctuaries and literary and epigraphic sources, archaeological evidence for the so-called Hunnic or “Huna” phases (c. 5th–7th century CE) are very scarce.
Around the mid-6th century, Buddhist monasteries entered a period of crisis, the effects of which were dramatically visible in the first half of the 7th century, especially in the northern regions of Gandhāra. It is after this phase (early 7th century) that literary sources and archaeology report the existence of several Brahmanical temples in and around Gandhāra. These temples were first supported by the Turki-Śāhi (whose capital was in Kabulistan; end-7th/early 8th century) and then by the Hindu-Śāhi (9th–10th century).
The Spatial Composition of Buddhist Temples in Central Asia, Part 1: The Transformation of Stupas
Yuuka Nakamura1 and Shigeyuki Okazaki1
1 Department of Architecture, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya, Japan Corresponding author: Yuuka Nakamura, Department of Architecture, Mukogawa Women’s University, 1-13 Tozaki-cho,
Garab Dorje (1st century), founder of Dzogchen (Great Perfection) tradition.
Kumāralāta (3rd century), Kumāralāta was the founder of Sautrāntika school of Buddhism.
Vasubandhu (4th century), Vasubandhu is considered one of the most influential thinkers in the Gandharan Buddhist philosophical tradition. In Jōdo Shinshū, he is considered the Second Patriarch; in Chan Buddhism, he is the 21st Patriarch. His Abhidharmakośakārikā(“Commentary on the Treasury of the Abhidharma”) is widely used in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism.
Asaṅga (4th century), he was “one of the most important spiritual figures” of Mahayana Buddhism and the “founder of the Yogacharaschool”.
Padmasambhāva (8th century), he is considered the Second Buddha by the Nyingma school, the oldest Buddhist school in Tibet known as “the ancient one”.
This revelatory exhibition of Buddhist art from Gandhara—an ancient kingdom whose center was the present-day Peshawar valley in northwest Pakistan—nearly didn’t happen. Slated to open at New York’s Asia Society last spring, the show was delayed for six months when loans from museums in Karachi and Lahore were jeopardized by (among other things) a flood, the dissolution of the Pakistani Ministry of Culture by constitutional amendment, and deteriorating diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Pakistan. That it opened at all was a testament to the persistence and vision of Asia Society’s director, Melissa Chiu, and her counterparts and associates in Pakistan.
Gandhara, which is was first mentioned as a geographic region in the Rig Veda, around the ninth century B.C.E. was of considerable strategic and commercial importance in the ancient world. Its fertile valleys, warm climate, and above all, its central position on the busy trade routes between Asia and the Mediterranean made it valuable property. As a consequence, it suffered numerous conquests, coming under the rule of the Persians with the reign of Darius I in the sixth century B.C.E., the Greeks under Alexander the Great, and the Indian Mauryans, who introduced Buddhism to the region in the middle of the third century B.C.E. Subsequent invaders included Graeco-Bactrians from Afghanistan, Scythians from central Asia, and Parthians from Iran. Each conqueror left an imprint on the culture; the result was a cosmopolitan, multiethnic society with a sculptural tradition that mixed local styles and subjects with borrowings from Indian, Persian, and Hellenistic art.
In the mid-first century C.E., the Kushans, a nomadic tribe from Central Asia, gained control of Gandhara. Kanishka I, the third emperor of the Kushan dynasty, was a strong supporter of Buddhism who ruled from centers in Gandhara and Mathura in northern India. Buddhist art flourished in both places for the next several centuries—in Mathura, as streamlined, Indian-influenced carvings in pink sandstone; in Gandhara, as cruder, but more stylistically varied sculptures in hard gray schist or terracotta.
The first part of the exhibition traced some of the cultural influences at work in Gandharan art through a selection of sculptures incorporating Indian and Greco-Roman motifs. The earliest of these are marked by startling disjunctions and surprise appearances. The curling acanthus leaves on a Roman-style Corinthian capital shelter a tiny, seated buddha. Along the edge of a stele—pillar—carved with chapters from the Buddha’s career (including an episode in which he sternly reminds a barking dog of its previous life) are numerous pairs of cavorting Greek erotes—love gods. And a half column, used to demarcate a scene on a narrative relief, is similar to a type found in Iran, while the buxom female figure leaning against it is an Indianyakshini, or tree spirit.
The Kushan period saw several extraordinary developments in Buddhist iconography, including the depiction of the Buddha in human form (before that he was represented by symbols such as a footprint), as well as a renewed interest in stories of his life and the appearance of an ever-expanding cast of buddhas, bodhisattvas, and celestial deities. These artistic innovations coincided with, and reflected, the evolution of Mahayana Buddhist ideas, among them the emphasis on forging an individual relationship with the deity, the concept of the bodhisattva who reaches enlightenment but foregoes nirvana in order to help others, and the notion of multiple here-and now buddhas accessible to the practitioner through meditation and visualization.
As in India, the earliest figural images of the Buddha in Gandharan art most often appeared as part of the carved decorations on stupas—Buddhist reliquaries—and the next section of the show features a variety of architectural details from such monuments. Here, in lively reliefs depicting popular scenes from the life of the Buddha, the Gandharan artists can be seen beginning to consolidate their various influences.
In one particularly charming image Maya, Prince Siddhartha’s mother, smiles as she dreams of her unborn son in the form of an elephant encircled by a halo. Another relief depicts a phalanx of hair-raisingly realistic demons sent by Mara to distract Siddhartha from his meditations. Through such pictures, practitioners could follow the story of the Buddha and his spiritual journey and, by adhering to the same path of renunciation, meditation, and wisdom, likewise achieve enlightenment.
A range of types populates the show’s third section, which is devoted to images of buddhas and bodhisattvas. A muscular second-century bodhisattva in one corner conforms to western ideals of masculine beauty, while across the room, a less buff but dashingly bejeweled and mustached Maitreya, the future Buddha, represents the full flowering of the Gandharan figural style, in which idealized, film starlooks are allied with a naturalistic treatment of the body and its enveloping draperies.
A highlight of the show is the so-called Mohammed Nari stele, which depicts a buddha sitting on a huge lotus surrounded by smaller bodhisattvas and worshippers. It may represent the Sukhavati paradise of Amitabha Buddha, or an unidentified buddha giving a teaching. In either case, as a representation of an enlightened being and his sphere of influence, it reflects a growing emphasis on the Mahayana doctrine of a transcendent buddhanature.
In Gandharan Buddhist art, dating is uncertain, messages are mixed, influences come and go, and works range from clumsy to sublime and from suave to kitschy. Looking at this show, which is full of gaps and cross-pollination, can be a little like trying to listen to a garbled radio transmission. But the overall impression is of vivid life and of a system of thought in development—one that would demand new visual languages and find one of them in Gandhara’s syncretic art.
Anne Doran is a writer and editor for the visual arts. She lives in New York City.
Early Gandhāran art: artists and working processes at Saidu Sharif I
Luca M. Olivieri
DOI: 10.32028/9781803274737-05
In Gandhāran Art in Its Buddhist Context (Archaeopress 2023): 60–76
Gandhara: Tecnologia, produzione e conservazione. Indagini preliminari su sculture in pietra e in stucco del Museo Nazionale d’Arte Orientale ‘Giuseppe Tucci’.
Authors Simona Pannuzi, Paola Biocca, Maurizio Coladonato, Barbara Di Odoardo, Stefano Ferrari, Laura Giuliano, Giuseppe Guida, Giovanna Iacono, Tommaso Leti Messina, Edoardo Loliva, Bruno Mazzone, Luca Maria Olivieri, Maria Gigliola Patrizi, Maurizio Pellegrini, Maurizio Piersanti, Paolo Salonia, Giancarlo Sidoti, Fabio Talarico, Mauro Torre, Massimo Vidale, Gianluca Vignaroli
THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHIST STUPA ARCHITECTURE: RITUAL AND REPRESENTATION
This online exhibition seeks to showcase the development of the stupa throughout India, Gandhara and Indonesia. Historically, the stupa was a “Buddhist monument…generally of a pyramidal or dome-like form and [was] erected over sacred relics of the great Buddha or on spots consecrated as the scene of his acts” (Goswamy, 1) The purpose of the structure itself was twofold: it was meant to express metaphysical notions and perform a votive function. As such, the combination of the architectural form in addition to the stupa’s decorative programme was meant to work in tandem to satisfy physical and metaphysical indigence (Snodgrass, 2-3). This came from the traditional Indian conceptualization of architecture and formed the basis from which the stupa began to embody symbolic meaning (Snodgrass,1) Although the stupa took its canonical shape in India, many stupas in neighbouring countries borrowed from its classical form. Yet, instead of repeating what had been established in India, they each adapted a unique and nuanced style that reflected their singular conceptualizations of Buddhist stylistic traditions. Overall, scholars have noticed that the “architectural evolution of the Buddhist stupa in India and Asian countries…reflected the sectarian development in Buddhism itself” (Le, 141). As such, in this exhibition I have aimed to analyze a myriad of stupas and contextualize their plan and architectural features within the larger corpus of Buddhist stupa architecture.
This exhibition is comprised of five Indian stupas, one Indonesian stupa and four Gandharan Stupas. Piphrawa, Sanchi and Bharhut act as the foundational blocks of the exhibition as they provide a traditional overview of the early Indian stupa. This is followed by an analysis of Amaravati and Kesariya. By showcasing the origins and the architectural developments produced under various phases of Buddhism, a clearer picture begins to emerge that underlines the stylistic tendencies that punctuated the construction of later stupas. Overall, it is notable that Piprahwa, Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati seemed to have originally existed as tumuli and were later enlarged with bricks or slabs of stone (Pant, 85). These four Indian stupas were all “built on a solid stone base” (Pant,84) and “possessed a hemispherical dome of moderate height having a truncated top with a harmika and a parasol fitted in a post in the middle of the Harmika.” (Pant, 84). However, as I aim to showcase, it is evident that the format of the “stupa itself was in a process of structural evolution” (Pant, 86). Although these structures share an indissoluble lineage, each architect based their work off of the foundation of his predecessors in order to develop and refine their own structural creations. Yet, this was not the only factor that contributed to the development of the structure. Scholars have noticed that particular phases of Buddhism had a large amount of influence on the stylistic and architectural tendencies of these structures. Whereas the Hinayana phase of Buddhism (circa 300 BCE to circa 100 CE) was overtly interested in the “eight-fold path for the laity” and the subsequent “achievement of Nirvana” (Pant, 81) it was nevertheless characterized by a staunch opposition to image worship. As such, Indian stupas erected or renovated amidst this period (Piphrawa, Sanchi, Bharhut) were salient indications of this phenomenon. Conversely, stupas such as Amaravati became embodiments of the Mahayanist influence. This type of Buddhism emerged in the 1st century CE and became popular as a result of its greater appeal to common people (Pant,83). Under Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhist art and ornamentation developed significantly (Pant, 83). As such “sculptural technique and forms bec[ame] more pronounced.” (Pant, 81) and this played an important role in assessing the difference between earlier and later stupas.
Between the 4th Century BCE and the 7th Century CE “the circular base [of the stupa] became square in plan, the drum was elongated and the low hemisphere of the age of Asoka was transformed into a lofty ornamental tower, decorated with mouldings and figures” (Pant, 86-87). This was sustained until Buddhism noticed a considerable decline in the 7th century CE. From this point on, the stupa shared striking resemblance and architectural proportion to the later temple. (Pant, 87). This exhibition has worked to highlight the notable steps of this gradual transition. Whereas Piphrawa has been described as rather archaic, Bhamala and Kanishka are overt indications of the movement towards elongation that has been punctuated by the presence of the four cardinal points. More than this, the Gandharan stupas highlighted in this exhibition work together to showcase the fascinating cross-cultural influences that manifested themselves as stylistic features on the stupas at Taxila and Saidu Sharif. The architectural proportions showcased in Gandhara were informed by both the Indian architectural tradition and Greco-Persian stylistic practices. At Gandhara, we notice acanthus leaf carvings, narrative relief panels along with Bodhisattva and the Buddha figures. (Pant, 91).
Although the gradual development of the stupa appears throughout this project as a rather linear process, we cannot neglect the degree of nuance that ran its course in each construction. The specific architectural detailings and stylistic programmes that showcase the development of stupa architecture over this period was likely the result of “social, economic, political, religious, philosophical and external influences” (Pant, 160). Buddhist philosophy was paramount to the observable stylistic nuances seen on these structures and this was likely compounded by regional and folk traditions. (Pant, 92). In one of the most poignant summations of this process, S. K. Saraswai contends that stupas were “driven by a tendency towards height and elongation, the Stupa ultimately attained a spire-like shape, in which the original hemispherical dome loses its importance, being reduced to insignificance between the lofty basement and the drum on the one hand, and on the other, the tapering series of the Chatravali transformed into a high and conical architecture motif” (Pant, 92). As this exhibition aims to show, the stupas at Kesariya, Dharmarajika, Borobodur, Saidu Sharif, Kanishka and others outlined in this exhibition, are salient exemplars of the gradual evolution from the architectural structures erected at Piphrawa and Sanchi. This was informed by an array of sectarian and social influences.
Works Cited
Goswamy, Brijinder Nath. “The Stupa – Some Uninformed Questions about Terminological Equivalents.” The Stupa: Its Religious, Historical and Architectural Significance . Wiesbaden: Frank Steiner Verlag, 1980. 1-12. Print.
Le, Huu Phuoc. Buddhist architecture. Lakeville: Grafikol, 2010.
Pant, Sushila. The Origins and Development of Stupa Architecture in India. Varanasi: harata Manisha, 1976.
Snodgrass, Adrian. The symbolism of the stupa. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1992. Print.
Further Reading
Faccenna, Domenico. “Columns at Dharmarajika (Taxila).” East and West, vol. 57, no. 1/4, 2007, pp. 127–173., http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757726.
Filigenzi, Anna, “Orientalised Hellenism versus Hellenised Orient:Reversing the Perspective on Gandharan Art Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia,” 18, 111-141 (2012), DOI:https://doi.org/10.1163/157005712X638663
FOGELIN, LARS. “Ritual and Presentation in Early Buddhist Religious Architecture.” Asian Perspectives, vol. 42, no. 1, 2003, pp. 129–154., http://www.jstor.org/stable/42929208.
Lawler, A. “Huge statue suggests early rise for Buddhism.” Science Vol 353.No. 6297 (2016): 336. JSTOR. Web. 10 Apr. 2017.
Macdonell, A. A. “THE BUDDHIST AND HINDU ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA.” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, vol. 57, no. 2938, 1909, pp. 363–364., http://www.jstor.org/stable/41338530.
Srivastava, K. M. ” Archaeological Excavations at Piprahwa and Ganwaria and the Identification of Kapilavastu,.” The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Vol. 3.No.1 (1980): 103-11. Web. 10 Apr. 2017.
Stratton, Eric. The Evolution of Indian Stupa Architecture in East Asia. New Delhi: Vedams, 2002. Print.
Trainor, Kevin. Relics, ritual, and representation in Buddhism: rematerialising the Sri Lankan Theravada tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge U Press, 2007. Print.
The Saidu Sharif Stupa, known as Saidu Sharif I during excavations, holds great significance as a Buddhist sacred site situated near the city of Saidu Sharif in the Swat District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It is nestled at the foothills that separate the Saidu River valley from the Jambil River valley. The sacred area encompasses two terraces constructed on the hill’s slope, accessed through a rock cut on the northern side. These terraces include a prominent stupa, surrounded by smaller monuments, as well as a monastery.
The Italian Archaeological Mission initiated excavations at the site in 1963, with the project spanning until 1982, interrupted between 1966 and 1977. The initial excavation campaign focused on the lower terrace, uncovering the main stupa, while the second campaign revealed the upper terrace, housing the monastery.
The lower terrace, referred to as the “Terrace of the Stupas,” features a larger main stupa, encompassed by various minor monuments such as stupas, viharas, and columns. The structure of the main stupa, with its square base and a stairway on the northern side, has been preserved up to the first cylindrical body. Fragments of the harmikā (the square railing around the stupa’s dome) and the umbrellas that once adorned the stupa have been found near the site. One of the cylindrical bodies of the stupa was adorned with a frieze carved in green schist, while the top corners of the rectangular body were adorned with four columns on pedestals, each topped with a crouched lion figure.
Archaeologists have divided the lifespan of the Saidu Sharif I sanctuary into three periods. In the first period, from approximately 25 BCE to the end of the 1st century CE, the monuments were arranged symmetrically. Over time, the Terrace of the Stupas became more crowded, leading to its expansion during the second and third periods, which occurred between the 2nd-3rd century CE and 4th-5th century CE, respectively. These three construction periods are also evident on the upper terrace, where the monastery underwent expansions followed by a reduction to its original dimensions during the third period, indicating the decline of the entire sacred area.
2,000-Year-Old Buddhist Temple Unearthed in Pakistan The structure is one of the oldest of its kind in the Gandhara region
Ruins of a 2,000-year-old Buddhist temple, one of the oldest discovered in Pakistan’s Gandhara region.Missione Archeologica italiana in Pakistan ISMEO/UNIVERSITA’ CA’ FOSCARI VENEZIA
Archaeologists in northwest Pakistan’s Swat Valley have unearthed a roughly 2,000-year-old Buddhist temple that could be one of the oldest in the country, reports the Hindustan Times.
Located in the town of Barikot, the structure likely dates to the second century B.C.E., according to a statement. It was built atop an earlier Buddhist temple dated to as early as the third century B.C.E.—within a few hundred years of the death of Buddhism’s founder, Siddhartha Gautama, between 563 and 483B.C.E., reports Tom Metcalfe for Live Science.
Luca Maria Olivieri, an archaeologist at Ca’ Foscari University in Venice, led the dig in partnership with the International Association for Mediterranean and Oriental Studies (ISMEO). The excavation site is in the historical region of Gandhara, which Encyclopedia Britannica describes as “a trade crossroads and cultural meeting place between India, Central Asia and the Middle East.” Hindu, Buddhist and Indo-Greek rulers seized control of Gandhara at different points throughout the first millennium B.C.E., notes Deutsche Presse-Agentur (DPA).
The temple’s ruins stand around ten feet tall; they consist of a ceremonial platform that was once topped by a stupa, or dome often found on Buddhist shrines. At its peak, the temple boasted a smaller stupa at the front, a room or cell for monks, the podium of a column or pillar, a staircase, vestibule rooms, and a public courtyard that overlooked a road.
“The discovery of a great religious monument created at the time of the Indo-Greek kingdom testifies that this was an important and ancient center for cult and pilgrimage,” says Olivieri in the statement. “At that time, Swat already was a sacred land for Buddhism.”
The acropolis in Barikot, Pakistan, where archaeologists began digging last year. Missione Archeologica italiana in Pakistan ISMEO/UNIVERSITA’ CA’ FOSCARI VENEZIA
In addition to the temple, the team unearthed coins, jewelry, statues, seals, pottery fragments and other ancient artifacts. Per the statement, the temple was likely abandoned in the third century C.E. following an earthquake.
Barikot appears in classical Greek and Latin texts as “Bazira” or “Beira.” Previous research suggests the town was active as early as 327 B.C.E., around the time that Alexander the Greatinvaded modern-day Pakistan and India. Because Barikot’s microclimate supports the harvest of grain and rice twice each year, the Macedonian leader relied on the town as a “breadbasket” of sorts, according to the statement.
Shortly after his death in 323, Alexander’s conquered territories were divided up among his generals. Around this time, Gandhara reverted back to Indian rule under the Mauryan Empire, which lasted from about 321 to 185 B.C.E.
Italian archaeologists have been digging in the Swat Valley since 1955. Since then, excavations in Barikot have revealed two other Buddhist sanctuaries along a road that connected the city center to the gates. The finds led the researchers to speculate that that they’d found a “street of temples,” the statement notes.
According to Live Science, Buddhism had gained traction in Gandhara by the reign of Menander I, around 150 B.C.E., but may have been practiced solely by the elite. Swat eventually emerged as a sacred Buddhist center under the Kushan Empire (30 to 400 C.E.), which stretched from Afghanistan to Pakistan and into northern India. At the time, Gandhara was known for its Greco-Buddhiststyle of art, which rendered Buddhist subjects with Greek techniques.
Shingardar Stupa Swat — A Buddhist Marvel of the Ancient Gandhara Civilization
Once rising almost as high as the Pantheon in Rome, the large stupa of Amluk Dara in the Swat valley, Pakistan, is still an imposing building. Yet it is was only one among many such Buddhist structures built in Udyāna, a garden kingdom of the Silk Road.
Owing to its position connecting North India through mountainous Central Asia with the kingdoms and empires beyond, this was a strategic area. It often formed the borders of larger empires, with rulers based in India failing to expand north from here over the mountains and rulers from north of the mountains failing to expand further south from here into the Indian plains. However, one of the early invaders came from much further afield. Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC) fought famous battles here during his central Asian campaigns. His army marched east from Alexander on the Caucasus (Bagram)—the city he had founded in the kingdom of Kapisa—and fought many battles to gain control of the region. Some of these were in the Swat valley and culminated with Alexander’s successful siege of Aornos, a seemingly impregnable steep-sided mountain with a flat top watered by a spring where locals had taken refuge. Identifying the site of this ancient battle has occupied scholars for well over a century, but two places stand out as the most probable candidates. Pir Sar, a mountain rising west of the Indus valley, was selected by the archaeologist Aurel Stein (1862–1943) after his survey of the region in 1926. However, although this is not rejected by all, the consensus now veers toward Mount Ilam, the summit of which is a day’s walk from the Amluk Dara Stupa (Stein 1929; Rienjang 2012; Olivieri 2015).
Legend tells of a serpent king, the Apalala, who lived in a lake high in the peaks of the Hindu Kush. Every year he demanded an annual offering of grain from the people living in the valley of the Swat river, which flowed from the lake. The valley was fertile, hence its name — Udyāna, the garden. But one year the people refused to give the offering and Apalala flooded their lands in revenge. The people duly asked help of Buddha. He came to the valley, converted Apalala and left his footprint on a rock as a sign of his visit.
The footprint survives (now in the local museum), the Swat River still floods, and for many centuries the valley kingdom remained a centre of Buddhism. The location of Amluk Dara and its central stupa was dependent on the landscape. The fecundity of the Swat valley is well captured by the description of the Aurel Stein: “The deep-cut lane along which we travelled was lined with fine hedges showing primrose-like flowers in full bloom, and the trees hanging low with their branches, though still bare of leaves, helped someone to recall Devon lanes. Bluebell-like flowers and other messengers of spring, spread brightness over the little terraced fields.” (Stein 1919: 32-5) And the Italian archaeologists working there since 1956 have noted that “the entire complex blended in with the surrounding nature. From this it drew its charm, importance and beauty—all elements that are believed to have been taken into consideration both in the original plans and subsequent extension.” (Faccenna and Spagnesi 2014: 550)
Gregory Schopen has argued that monasteries were very closely linked to the Indian ideal of a garden containing an arbor or pleasure grove, evidenced by the shared lexicon in the first century AD. He writes that “Buddhist monks . . . attempted to assimilate their establishments to the garden, or actually saw them as belonging to that cultural category.” (Schopen 2006: 489). The framing of views from within the garden or monastery was an important element in its siting, a point noted by many later travelers. So Stein writes of another site in the Lower Swat that it “proved a pleasing example of the care in which these old Buddhist monks knew how to select sacred spots and place their monastic establishments by them. A glorious view down the fertile valley to Thāna, picturesque rocky spurs around, clumps of firs and cedars higher up, and the rare boon of a spring close by—all combined to give charm to the spot. Even those who do not seek future bliss in Nirvāṇa could fully enjoy it.” (Stein 1929: 17-18). Rock-cut or other seats were often placed at points giving a particular view.
During its heyday, monks and merchants carried news of Udyāna’s Buddhist sights and temples along the Silk Road to China and the mountain valley became part of the itinerary for pilgrim monks en route to India. The first to leave a record was Faxian, who arrived in about 403. He stayed for several months visiting the Buddha footprint along with the rock on which he dried his clothes, and the place where he converted ‘the wicked serpent.’ He noted that there were 400 Buddhist monasteries.
Other pilgrims followed, including Xuanzang in 630 and the Korean monk, Hyecho, around 727. By their time Buddhism was in decline in the plains below Swat, but the valley provided an enclave. Indeed, recent archaeological work by Dr Luca Olivieri and his colleagues of the Italian Archaeological Mission has shown that rebuilding of Buddhist shrines and temples continued into the tenth centuries, long after Buddhism had disappeared in its Indian homeland.
Thanks to Luca Olivieri for his generous responses to my many queries and ready supply of excellent photographs for the book.
References and Further Reading Faccenna, Domenico, and Piero Spagnesi. 2014. Buddhist Architecture in the Swat Valley, Pakistan: Stupas, Viharas, a Dwelling Unit. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications. Olivieri, Luca M. 1996. “Notes on the Problematic Sequence of Alexander’s Itinerary in Swat. A Geo-Historical Approach.” East and West 46.1-2:45–78. ———. 2014. The Last Phases of the Urban Site of bir-Kot-Ghwandai (Barikot): The Buddhist Sites of Gumbat and Amluk-Dara (Barikot). Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications. ———. 2015. “‘Frontier Archaeology’: Sir Aurel Stein, Swat and the Indian Aornus.” South Asian Studies 31 (1): 58–70. Olivieri, L. M. and Vidale, M. 2006. “Archaeology and Settlement History in a Test Area of the Swat Valley. Preliminary Report on the AMSV Project (1st Phase). East and West 54.1–3”73–150. Rienjang, Wannaporn. 2012. “Aurel Stein’s Work in the North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan.” In H. Wang ed. Sir Aurel Stein: Colleagues and Collections.British Museum Research Publication 194. London: British Museum: 1–10. . Schopen, Gregory. 2006. “The Buddhist ‘Monastery’ and the Indian Garden: Aesthetics, Assimilations, and the Siting of Monastic Establishments.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 126 (4): 487–505. Stein, M. Aurel. 1929. On Alexander’s Track to the Indus: Personal Narrative of Explorations on the North-West Frontier of India. London: Macmillan. http://archive.org/stream/onalexanderstrac035425mbp/onalexanderstrac035425mbp_djvu.txt.
“Aspects of the Architecture of the Buddhist Sacred Areas in Swat.”
Jambil River, a tributary of the Swat River, meanders through a picturesque valley rich in natural landscapes. This valley is not only a treat for the eyes but also holds significant historical importance, with numerous Buddhist remains and carvings discovered in the past. On the eastern side of the Jambil River, an excavation at Panr has unveiled a stupa and monastery dating back to the 1st to 5th century AD.
Brief Description of the Structure:
The site at Panr spans three distinct terraces, each offering a unique glimpse into the past.
On the lower terrace, the remnants of a monastery have been found. This area was divided into a dining hall and living quarters, though only the foundations of the base platforms remain visible today.
The middle terrace, often referred to as the “Sacred Area,” is home to the remains of the main stupa. This stupa, with its square base and a mound that once topped the drum, stands as a testament to the architectural prowess of its time. On all four sides of the main stupa, one can observe the foundations of standalone columns. Additionally, scattered throughout this terrace, one can find the foundations of small votive stupas.
Unfortunately, the main stupa has suffered significant damage due to the illegal excavations carried out by treasure hunters. Despite the damage, the site still exudes a sense of grandeur and provides valuable insights into ancient Buddhist architecture.
Moving to the upper terrace, one encounters the remains of the monks’ cells. These cells, constructed with walls made of small diaper masonry, offer a glimpse into the early Kushan period, dating back to the 1st to 2nd century AD.
List of Architectural Spatial Components:
The monastery and stupa at Panr showcase various architectural spatial components that highlight the ingenuity of the builders:
Square Base: The main stupa sits atop a square base, providing a stable foundation for the structure.
Mound: The stupa features a mound on top of the drum, adding height and prominence to the monument.
Drum: The drum of the stupa serves as a transition between the base and the mound, often adorned with intricate carvings or designs.
Stairway: A stairway, leading to the top of the podium or the base of the stupa, allows access for religious rituals and circumambulation.
Free-standing Columns: Standalone columns, positioned around the main stupa, serve as decorative elements and symbolize architectural elegance.
Bastion: A bastion, strategically placed within the structure, offers additional support and stability to the stupa.
Square Pillar: Square pillars can be seen within the monastery and stupa complex, providing architectural variety.
Octagonal Plan: Some elements of the structure, such as the base or the drum, may follow an octagonal plan, adding geometric beauty to the design.
Corridor and Double Corridor: Corridors, both single and double, create pathways within the monastery complex, facilitating movement and providing a tranquil ambiance.
Overall, the stupa and monastery at Panr offer a captivating glimpse into the architectural brilliance and spiritual heritage of the region, inviting visitors and scholars to delve deeper into its history and cultural significance.
On the front remains of Main Stupa, on a lower terrace monastery in the background Jumbail Valley
Google Earth Image
Religious Architecture of Gandhara – Pakistan, Buddhist Stupas and Monasteries
Khan, Ansar Zahid. Pakistan Historical Society.
Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society; Karachi Vol. 62, Iss. 4, (Oct-Dec 2014): 111-112.
The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the Third International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 18th-19th March, 2019
Archaeopress archaeology
Editors Wannaporn Rienjang, Peter Stewart Edition illustrated Publisher Classical Art Research Centre, 2020 ISBN 1789696968, 9781789696967 Length 264 pages
De-fragmenting Gandhāran art: advancing analysis through digital imaging and visualization
Ian Haynes, Iwan Peverett, Wannaporn Rienjang with contributions by Luca M. Olivieri
Buddhism in Pakistan took root some 2,300 years ago under the Mauryan king Ashoka who sent missionaries to the Kashmira-Gandhara region of North West Pakistan extending into Afghanistan, following the Third Buddhist council in Pataliputra (modern India).
Majjhantika, a monk from Varanasi was the first Buddhist to preach in Kashmir and Gandhara.
Buddhist sites in Sindh are numerous but ill preserved in various stages of deterioration.
Sites at Brahmanabad (Mansura Sanghar district) include a Buddhist stupa at Mohenjo-daro; Sirah-ji-takri near Rohri, Sukkur, Kahu-Jo-Daro at Mirpur Khas, Nawabshah, Sudheran-Jo-Thul near Hyderabad, Thul Mir Rukan stupa, Thul Hairo Khan Stupa, Bhaleel-Shah-Thul square stupas (5th-7th century A.D) at Dadu, and Kot-Bambhan-Thul buddhist tower near Tando Muhammad Khan.
List of Buddhist Stupas in Pakistan
This is a list of historical Buddhist Stupas in Pakistan.
Sikri stupa
The Sikri stupa is a work of Buddhist art dated to 3rd-4th century from the Kushan period in Gandahara, consisting of 13 narrative panels that tell the story of Buddha. Modern restoration accounts for their order in the Lahore Museum. The restoration began while Harold Arthur Deane was still assigned to the North-West Frontier Province in what was then British India. Three photos taken around 1890 show the order of the panels in the earliest restoration.
Amluk-Dara stupa
Amluk-Dara stupa is located in Swat valley of Pakistan. It is a part of Gandhara civilization at Amluk-Dara. The stupa is believed to have been built in the third century. The stupa was first discovered by a Hungarian-British archaeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1926. It was later studied by Domenico Faccena in the 60s and 70s.
Mohra Muradu
Mohra Muradu is the place of an ancient Buddhist stupa and monastery near the ruins of Taxila built by the Kushans. The ancient monastery is located in a valley and has views of the surrounding mountains. The monks could meditate in all stillness at this place but were near enough to the city of Sirsukh to go for begging as it is only around 1.5 km away.
Thul Hairo Khan
The Thul Hairo Khan is a Buddhist Stupa, built possibly between the 5th to 7th century CE near the modern-day town of Johi, in Sindh, Pakistan. It is constructed with baked and unbaked bricks fixed with a material made from mud mixed water. The stupa is 50 feet high and 30 feet wide in size. The stair from the north side of stupa leads to its top. The stupa has an arched tunnel at ground level which crosses from north to south. It is believed that stupas like Hairo Khan were built in Sindh between 5th to 7th centuries CE. Thul of Hairo Khan appears to be series of discovered in other regions of Sindh.
Sudheran-Jo-Thul
Sudheran-Jo-Thul is a Buddhist stupa which is situated near Tando Muhammad Khan city of Tando Muhammad Khan District, Sindh, Pakistan. The stupa is close to Badin city as well. This Buddhist monument in Sindh is located at the mound which shows the remains of an ancient big city. It is located towards South of Hyderabad city. Locally it is famous as Tower of Sudheran. According to some accounts this stupa is believed to be cinerary.
Sphola Stupa
Sphola Stupa is a Buddhist monument located in the Khyber Pass, Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan. The monument located about 25 kilometers from Jamrūd is on a high rocky ledge and consists of a stone mound supported by a tiered base. Large sections of the stone have fallen away, particularly to the right of the mound. A man is standing on the top of the mound, and another man is standing on a pile of rubble to the right. There is a valley beyond with steep mountains rising behind it.
Nemogram stupa is located 45 km west of Saidu Sharif and 22 km from Birkot, on the right bank of Swat river in Pakistan.This site was discovered in 1966 and excavated in 1967–68.Swat is rich in historical landmarks as well as natural beauty. In every direction, these are tangled in the wide valley. Aurel Stein, a British archaeologist, and Tucci, who was followed by other Italians, worked tirelessly to document and preserve these monuments.
Mankiala stupa
The Mankiala Stupa is a 2nd-century Buddhist stupa near the village of Tope Mankiala, in Pakistan’s Punjab province. The stupa was built by the Kushans and is said to commemorate the spot, where according to the Jataka tales, an incarnation of the Buddha called Prince Sattva sacrificed himself to feed seven hungry tiger cubs.
Barikot
Barikot is a town located in the middle course of the Swat River in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It is located about 20 km (12 mi) away from Mingora and the Butkara Stupa. It is the entrance town to the central Swat Valley with a population of approximately 25,000 people. Barikot is the location of an ancient citadel captured by Alexander the Great, with Chalcolithic remains dating back to c. 1700 BCE, and an early-historic period town dating back to c. 500 BCE. The Italian Archaeological Mission founded by Giuseppe Tucci has been excavating ruins of the ancient town of Bazira under Barikot since 1984.
Mankiala
Mankiala is a village in the Potohar plateau, Punjab near Rawalpindi, Pakistan, known for the nearby Mankiala stupa – a Buddhist stupa located at the site where, according to legend, Buddha sacrificed some of his body parts to feed seven hungry tiger cubs.
Kunala Stupa
Kunala Stupa is a Kushan-era Buddhist stupa and monastery complex to the south-east of Taxila, on a hill about 200 meters just south of Sirkap, Punjab, Pakistan, thought to date to the 2nd century CE. It is located on a hill overlooking the ancient Indo-Greek city of Sirkap.
Kanishka Stupa
The Kanishka Stupa was a monumental stupa established by the Kushan king Kanishka during the 2nd century CE in today’s Shaji-ki-Dheri on the outskirts of Peshawar, Pakistan.
Kalawan
Kalawan is the name of an archaeological site in the area of Taxila in Pakistan, where it is one of the largest Buddhist establishment. It is located about 2 km from the Dharmarajika stupa.
Gumbat Stupa
Gumbat Stupa is a 2nd-century Buddhist stupa located in Swat valley in Pakistan. It is situated about 9 kilometres south of Birkot in the Kandag Valley of Gandhara.
Dharmarajika Stupa
The Dharmarajika Stupa, also referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila, is a Buddhist stupa near Taxila, Pakistan. It dates from the 2nd century CE, and was built by the Kushans to house small bone fragments of the Buddha. The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developed around it, forms part of the Ruins of Taxila – which were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.
Butkara Stupa
The Butkara Stupa is an important Buddhist stupa near Mingora, in the area of Swat, Pakistan. It may have been built by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, but it is generally dated slightly later to the 2nd century BCE.
Thul Mir Rukan
The Thul Mir Rukan is a Buddhist stupa, built possibly between the 6th to 11th century CE, near the modern cities of Kazi Ahmed and Daulatpur in the Sindh province of Pakistan. This monument has domed ceiling and it is 60 feet high, constructed with baked bricks. Details indicate the site being a religious Buddhist center since antiquity. Many evidences were explored from this site are related to Gautama Buddha.
The Origin and Development of Cross-planned Stupa: New Perceptions based on Recent Discoveries from Bhamala
December 2017 Authors: Shakirullah Khan Hazara University Abdul Hameed Hazara University Abdul Samad Veterinary Research Institute, Pakistan Jonathan Mark Kenoyer University of Wisconsin–Madison
An Infinity of Stupas: Design and Architecture of Chinese Buddhist Temples and Pagodas
Key Terms
Mount Wutai in Shanxi province was recognized as the earthly abode of the bodhisattva Mañjusri
Gates
Palaces
Halls
Pillars
Pagodas
Stupa
Bilateral Symmetry
Cosmograms
Chinese Cosmology
Heaven and Earth
futu 浮圖, fotu 佛圖, or ta 塔
11 Headed Guanyin
Square and Circle
Yin and Yang
Horizontal and Vertical
Nan Wang
Research of Chinese Buddhist Temples Space Design
Source: Research of Chinese Buddhist Temples Space Design
Source: Research of Chinese Buddhist Temples Space Design
Source: Research of Chinese Buddhist Temples Space Design
Source: Research of Chinese Buddhist Temples Space Design
Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Source: Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Source: Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Research on Order Aesthetics of Traditional Chinese Architecture from the Perspective of Design Geometry
Source: Research on Order Aesthetics of Traditional Chinese Architecture from the Perspective of Design Geometry
Source: Research on Order Aesthetics of Traditional Chinese Architecture from the Perspective of Design Geometry
Source: Research on Order Aesthetics of Traditional Chinese Architecture from the Perspective of Design Geometry
Source: Research on Order Aesthetics of Traditional Chinese Architecture from the Perspective of Design Geometry
Source: Research on Order Aesthetics of Traditional Chinese Architecture from the Perspective of Design Geometry
Source: Research on Order Aesthetics of Traditional Chinese Architecture from the Perspective of Design Geometry
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GEOMETRY AND ARCHITECTURAL REPRESENTATION IN PREMODERN CHINA
By XIUYUAN WU A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2020
Modernization of traditional Chinese Buddhist temples
by Rui Wang A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Architecture Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2019
The Chinese Buddhist monastery or temple is fashioned after the imperial palaces and bears very little resemblance to the temples in India or other Buddhist countries. Generally there are three groups of buildings separated by courtyards. The monastery, like other Chinese structures, normally faces south.[ Phor Kark See Monastery Ordination Hall, Singapore ]Entering the front hall, one is confronted by four huge images, usually made from wood, two on each side. These are the Four Heavenly Kings or Devas, the Guardians of the Four Directions and the hall is named after them as the ‘Si-Tien Wang Tien’. In this hall, one is greeted at the entrance, by the lovable and kindly Buddha-to-be, Maitreya Buddha, known to the Chinese as the ‘Laughing Buddha’ or ‘Ta-pao Mi-Lei-Fwo, with his fat paunch, looking joyously towards the entrance. Directly behind Mi-Lei-Fwo, often separated by a wall, is the great deva Wei-to, the Projector of Buddhist temples and the Faith. He is depicted clad in full armour and holding either a gnarled staff or a sceptre-shaped weapon resting on the ground. Wei-To, who is a general under the Four Heavenly Kings, is also accorded the title of ‘Protector of Buddhist Books’. He is always facing the Great Hall known as the ‘Ta-Hung-Pau-Tien’ which is separated from the front hall by a wall or a courtyard.
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In the Great Hall the main altar is found and on it is the image of Sakyamuni Buddha and his twoforemost disciples, Mahakasyapa and Ananda, or other Buddhas of the past eras. The arrangment and choice of personages in this altar varies from temple to temple. Most of the time Sakyamuni Buddha is depicted in an attitude of comtemplation with his disciples flanking him. Temples dedicated to Amitabha Buddha have his image at the centre, Sakyamuni Buddha and Bahaisajyagura, better known to the Chinese as ‘Yao-Shih-Fwo’, are each accompanied by two disciples. To the right and left of the main altar one usually finds the two Great Bodhisattvas, Manjusri (Wen-Shu-Shih-Li) and Samantabhadra (Pu-Hsien). The placement of personage are not really fixed so that one may often find Sakyamuni Buddha being flanked by Amitabha (O-Mi-Two-Fwo) and Yao-Shin-Fwo (Medicine Buddha), the two great Buddhas of past eras. At other times a single Buddha is seen seated between his two Bodhisattvas, Sakyamuni (Shih-Jia-Mo-Ni-Fwo) between Manjusri and Samantabhadra or Amitabha Buddha with Avalokitesvara (Kuan Yin) and Mahasthamaprata (Ta-Shih-Chih). Temples dedicated to Kuan Shih Yin P’usa will have her flanked by Wen-shu-Shih-Li and P’u-Hsien.On the east and west walls of this Great Hall are often arranged the figures of the Eighteen Arhats (Lohas) who are represented as possessing various kinds of supernatural powers. Along the north wall can be found the images of Jan-teng Fwo or Dipankara, the ancient Buddha who predicted Sakyamuni’s Buddhahood, and popular Bodhisattvas such as Kun Yin, Wen-shu, Pu-Hsien and Ti-stsang (Ksi-tigarbha), or other Bodhisattvas. Very often, an image of Kuan Ti, the Protector of Buddhism, can also be found in this hall. It is here at the Ta-Hung-Pau-Tien that devout Buddhist offer their prayers and offerings of flowers, fruits and other gifts which are placed on the table in front of the main altar. Very often, behind the central images of this hall and facing northwards, is placed the images of Kuan-Yin P’usa. The third, of Back Hall, is usually divided into several smaller halls (Tien) or rooms. The central hall is generally the altar of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva, the right housing the funerary tablet of the temple founder, while the left may be the Teaching or Meditation Hall. On the side or behind these main buildings are the living quarters, the dining area and the kitchen.
Mount Wutai: Visions of a Sacred Buddhist Mountain,
WEN-SHING CHOU,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018. 240 pp. $65. ISBN 9780691178646
Building a sacred mountain: The buddhist architecture of China’s Mount Wutai
The development of Chinese Buddhist architecture can be traced back to the introduction of Buddhism. The main Buddhist architectural items include temples, pagodas, and grottos. Buddhist architecture is regarded as a great art treasure where Chinese calligraphy, sculpture and Chinese painting combine. Being the spiritual symbols of Buddhism, they are not only monastic holy places, but also serve as sacred land that can purify souls.
The Buddhist temple is the holy place where Buddhist doctrine is maintained. Differing from other religions’ temples, Chinese Buddhist temples have many characteristics of their own. For example, similar to Chinese palaces and dwelling houses, they are comprised of a number of small yards. The oldest temple in China – White Horse Temple is a typical example of this.
The architectural styles of Buddhist temples in China were mainly formed in three periods: Han Dynasty (206BC-220), Northern and Southern Dynasties (386-589), and Tang Dynasty (618-907). The first period sees the retention of Indian styles. In the second period, wooden framework was added to the original styles. In the third period, the styles of Buddhist temples were totally Sinicized and the pavilion-like pagoda, which is unique to China, became popular.
Pagoda
As the symbol of Buddhism where people climb to have a bird’s-eye-view, it is often erected in temples. Pagodas can be made of stone, wood, colored glaze or metal. Pagodas have an odd number of layers. Seven-layer and Nine-layer pagodas are commonly built. The shape of cross-section is rectangular, eight-sided or even circular. Initially, the pagoda served as the central axis alongside which rows of halls and monks’ rooms spread out. Later, pagodas were built near the main palace hall.
It is another type of Buddhist architecture, which is often chiseled into cliffs. In the 3rd century, Chinese Buddhists began to build grottoes and Xinjiang is the first area where grottoes were hewn. Grottoes are decorated with painted sculptures, carvings and frescos. Craftsmen revealed real life pictures and their understanding of society in these art works, which gave them great historical and cultural value. The four famous grottoes in China are: Mogao Caves, Longmen Grottoes, Yungang Grottoes and Maiji Caves. They are well preserved and attract many visitors from home and abroad.
1. Feihong Pagoda in Hongdong County Shanxi Province 2. Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng City 3. Qianxun Pagoda in Dali City 4. Yingxian Wooden Pagoda in Shanxi Province 5. Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi’an City 6. Leifeng Pagoda in Hangzhou City 7. Tiger Hill Pagoda in Suzhou City 8. Six Harmonies Pagoda in Hangzhou City 9. Bao’en Temple Pagoda in Suzhou City 10. Iron Pagoda in Kaifeng City
“The Creation of “Sacred Place” through the “Sense of Place” of the Daci’en Wooden Buddhist Temple, Xi’an, China”
As the earliest full-size towering pagoda extant in China, the pagoda at Songyuesi 嵩岳寺 in Dengfeng, Henan (ca. 523 CE) is one of the most important objects we have for understanding the creation of Buddhist sacred space in Asia. Yet the plan of this structure, incorporating both dodecagon and octagon, is mysterious in its complexity－doubly so because it may be the only surviving example of its kind. By focusing on the geometry used in its creation, in this paper describe one possibility for determining the interior and exterior dimensions of the Songyuesi Pagoda plan, effectively encoding the structure with the potential for replication and regeneration important in the Buddhist sūtras as well as Indic temple designs of the period. I also show how the same technique could have been used to create cosmological diagrams prior to the influence of Buddhist theology on Chinese society. Thus, similarities in the use of geometry to describe the structure of, and potentially control, the cosmos in South and East Asia the may have facilitated the rapid spread of Buddhism across this vast region.
LIGHT IN SACRED ARCHITECTURE: BUDDHIST AND HINDU TEMPLES
ZHANG Dongxu1, a, LIU Daping2,b, WEI Xinru 3,d and XIAO Meng 4,c 1 Department of Architecture, NEU, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China 2 School of Architecture, HIT, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150006, China 3 Liaoning Urban and Rural Construction and Planning Design Institute, LURDI, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China 4 School of Management, SUT, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110178, China aDongxu75@163.com, bldp_abc@sina.com, c1090923309@qq.com,dxiaototo80@163.com
Buddhism was introduced into China mainly during Eastern Han Dynasty (25 – 220) via the South China Sea and Western Region. The Buddhist temple was adapted to Chinese tastes when it arrived in China. Its general layout follows Chinese traditional type – courtyard with dome-shaped structure called a stupa as its principal part. A lecture hall, refectory, sutra depository and monks’ rooms are distributed along the central axis. Unlike the paintings and decorations in Christian churches which present a heavenly afterlife, Chinese Buddhist temples reveal an atmosphere closer to worldly life.
Figures of Buddha and the bones of Buddha’s relics are worshipped in the temples which were called Futu, Lanruo, Chanlin, Daochang, Jialan and Zhaoti in different dialects of Chinese.
The general development of Chinese Buddhist temples went through the following periods:
Eastern Han Dynasty – Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 – 420): Buddhism was introduced to China during this period. The early Chinese Buddhist temples followed Indian style, which set the stupa as its center. They once had a traditional Chinese name – Ci (ancestral temple) and the number was very limited. White Horse Temple in Luoyang is a typical example of this period.
Northern and Southern Dynasties (386 – 589) to Five Dynasties (907 – 960): Buddhism was at its height of splendor and power during this period. In the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907), a lot of Buddhist doctrines were translated and the main Buddhist sects were formed and developed. Many more Buddhist temples were built with larger dimensions. Walls of the courtyard were decorated with exquisite embossment. A niche was placed in the middle of the north wall. A Buddhist pylon stood in the centre of the temple. The Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi’an was built in this period.
Song Dynasty (960 – 1279) – late Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1911): The social position of Buddhism overall was weakened in the Song Dynasty but Zen, a major sect of Chinese Buddhism, began to flourish in this period. The layout of temples changed little by little. Xiangguo Temple in Kaifeng City is an example of this period.
Temple Layout
The layout of Buddhist temples has been long established. Generally speaking, the mountain gate (front gate) is the entrance part. The Bell Tower and Drum Tower stand on the two sides inside the mountain gate. The Hall of Heavenly Kings, where sculptures of Four Heavenly Kings stand on the two sides with two in a group and Maitreya (the fat laughing Buddha) laid in the middle altar, is the first main hall. Next follows the Grand Hall where the sculpture of Sakyamuni sits.
Bodhisattva Hall worships the main Bodhisattva of a temple, the enlightened being who seeks to enlighten others, is located behind. Next is the lecture hall, the place where Buddhist doctrines are delivered. Sutra Depository, where Buddhist books, sutras and scriptures are stored is situated at the back. Refectories, monks’ rooms and other attached architecture are distributed along the central axis. Buddhism advocates that people act with leniency. An area where captive animals are freed to show the charity of human souls and to accumulate merit for the afterlife can be found in most Buddhist temples. Generally speaking, this is the common layout of Chinese Buddhist temples.
Buddhism is a religion that respects the environment. Most Buddhists aim to transcend worldly, material desires and establish a close relationship with nature. Disciples could establish and sustain a calm and joyful mind, especially during the Buddha’s lifetime when they frequently resided in very primary and unfinished thatched homes. They were at ease wherever they lived, whether in a suburban neighbourhood, a forest, by the water, in a chilly cave, or under a tree. However, as the number of Buddhist adherents increased, King Bimbisara and a follower of Sudatta suggested that a monastery be constructed, allowing practitioners to congregate in one location and engage in a more organized practice. The Buddha approved for followers to donate to monasteries after giving the idea careful thought and subsequent wholehearted agreement. The Megara-matr-Prasada Lecture Hall, the Bamboo Grove, and the Jetavana Monastery—all of which bear the donor’s Sanskrit name—were built as a result. This marked the start of Indian Buddhist architecture.
The hub of cultural activities is frequently a Buddhist temple. From a contemporary perspective, temples can be compared to museums because they house priceless and unique works of art and are, in and of themselves, stunning works of art. They combine architecture, sculpture, painting, and calligraphy-like art museums do. One can find peace and tranquillity in temples because they provide a harmonious environment and a spiritual atmosphere. They are helpful locations for people in distress to unload their burdens, calm their minds, and find peace.
Stupas were the primary type of architectural construction in early China. The hall (or shrine) started to take centre stage in the Sui and Tang dynasties. A stupa, also known as a pagoda, is sometimes referred to as the “high rise” of Buddhist architecture because of its tall, narrow shape that extends upward, sometimes with enormous height. India is where the idea and physical form of the Chinese stupa was developed. A stupa serves as a shrine for the Buddha’s relics, where visitors can then make offerings to the Buddha. The stupa has undergone significant changes in China, where it originally had a relatively straightforward design. These changes and advancements show off the nation’s artistic and architectural prowess. Stupas are built in different sizes, proportions, colours, and imaginative designs while retaining a generally recognizable shape. Although stupas can be found near water, in cities, mountains, or the countryside, they were all built to blend in with and enhance their surroundings. One of the most well-liked styles of architecture in China is the stupa.
Every region’s Buddhist architecture has a distinctive personality due to its varied cultural and natural environments. India and Ceylon share a close architectural resemblance. Similar architecture can be found in Burma, Thailand, and Cambodia, where wood is incorporated into the design of the buildings. The stupas in Java are similar to those in Tibet, which are made of stone and symbolize the nine-layered Mandala (a symbolical circular figure representing the universe and the divine cosmology of various religions: used in meditation and rituals). Large monasteries in Tibet are frequently built on hillsides and resemble European architecture in terms of how the structures are linked to one another to create a kind of street-style arrangement.
It is common practice in China to construct Buddhist temples in the emperor’s palace style, known as “palace architecture.” The main gate and main hall are in the centre, and other facilities, such as the celestial and the abbot’s quarters, are lined up on either side. This layout was created with symmetry in mind. There is a ceremonial bell on one side and a ceremonial drum on the other. A guesthousefor lay visitors and the Yun Shui Hall, where staying monastics can be accommodated, will be located behind this symmetrical line of buildings.
Wood and tile, with the roof tiles painted a particular colour, were used to construct the temple’s ancillary buildings. China has very few palace-style temples that have survived from the early ages because wood is a complex material to preserve over long periods. However, it is a blessing that the Tang-era wooden construction of Fo Guang Temple is still standing. Fo Guang Temple’s main palace-style hall is still remarkably sturdy and pristine, giving us an impression of the era’s opulence. This still-standing temple still features exquisite Tang Dynasty artwork, which includes sculpture, paintings, and murals. This allows us to realize that this period was the pinnacle of Chinese artistic expression. This temple, designated a national treasure, serves as a reminder of China’s glorious period of art and architecture.
The modifications of structure, decoration, and construction techniques that change and evolve through various eras can be seen in Fo Guang Temple and the other temples that have endured through the years—although there are not many. Additionally, they act as the tangible visual memory of a particular time and place, enabling us to study the architectural and cultural history of the area. Despite China’s 5,000-year history, very little of its architecture has been preserved, as was already mentioned. The reason we do not have more standing temples from the early ages to study today is not just because they were built with wood, which is highly flammable and prone to decay. There are other explanations for why there are not many temples left. For instance, some dynasties that gained power around the 16th century mandated the destruction of the essential structures built by the previous dynasty. Alternatively, temples were damaged or even destroyed during various wars and acts of aggression. Regardless of the building materials employed — wood, stone, clay, etc. – Human rivalry made it almost impossible for many temples to endure. Buddhist cave temples, fortunately, were largely safe from human vandalism and weather damage. They are well-preserved and enable the viewing of conventional architecture and historical art. It is common for contemporary Buddhist temples to copy older designs. For instance, the main shrines of Taiwan’s Fo Guang Shan, the Hsi Lai Temple in the United States, and the Nan Tien Temple in Australia were all modelled after early Chinese architectural styles. The Chinese culture has been introduced and disseminated throughout the world by several Buddhist temples today, in addition to honouring and preserving it.
The rock cave, or cave temple, and all of the art it contains is the most critical link in Chinese Buddhist art and architecture history. A cave temple is a chamber of varying sizes carved out of a single block of rock, sometimes right up against a cliff face. Many are rather large. Ornate statues, sculptures, and vibrant paintings of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, arhats, and sutras can be found inside the rock caves. 366 C.E. saw the beginning of this artistic practice. E. until the 15th century, it was started by a monk by the name of Le Zun. In some places, enormous carved statues and countless cave temples cover mountainsides. The Dung Huang cave is the most well-known for its magnificent and opulent mural among the numerous cave temples. Longmen Caves in Luoyang, Yungang Caves in Datong, and the Thousand Buddhas Cave in Jinang are a few other well-known caves in China. Due to its enormous size, Yungang Cave is particularly well-known.
The construction of cave temples took place over a long period, spanning several dynasties. Unlike wooden temples, which deteriorate due to exposure to the elements, cave temples are protected by solid rock and thus continue to stand as impressive and imposing reminders of how Buddhism once flourished throughout China. The world has been awed by the beauty and grandeur of the Buddhist artwork found in the caves, which has managed to capture the essence and specifics of the teachings for the enjoyment of all who visit. In the opinion of both artists and archaeologists, this kind of Buddhist architecture is particularly vibrant, lovely, and indicative of how Buddhist art has changed and evolved. They are priceless works of art that have an important place in China’s history of culture, art, and architecture.
The design of secular buildings, especially imperial palaces, has long influenced Chinese temple architecture. This custom is upheld in Nan Tien by the structures and colours used throughout. From a distance, grandiose roofs signify status: the higher the rank, the higher the height and slope. Consequently, the Main Shrine has the tallest and most impressive roof. The emperor in dynastic China only wore yellow items. The yellow temple walls and terracotta roof tiles are significant symbols. Traditional fire protection measures include small mythical creatures lining the roof hips. Back when the entire building would have been made of wood, the fire was a real threat. Even though the roof framing on Nan Tien is mainly made of steel, the painted end beams that extend under the eaves give the impression that the building is made of wood.
Associated with the emperor is the colour red, which is also considered lucky. It was applied to imperial columns, beams, and lintels like at Nan Tien. Palace balustrades were typically made of white marble carved; Nan Tien’s concretebalustrades are made similarly and are painted white.
The prominently raised podium for Buddha or Bodhisattva statues found at the back of each shrine is another feature reminiscent of imperial architecture; it is similar to the throne that the emperor was seated upon in royal audience halls.
As in conventional palace design, Nan Tien’s courtyard plan of less important buildings rising to the most important is directed by axial geometry reflecting an established hierarchy. The Main Shrine serves as the head, the surrounding buildings serve as the arms, and the courtyard serves as the lap in a seated Buddha’s arrangement in the courtyard.
A Buddhist’s journey along the Middle Path to enlightenment is analogous to the progression through the complex, which includes climbing stairs to the Front Shrine, more stairs to the courtyard, and continuing along a central walk to a final set of stairs before the Main Shrine.
Temple compounds typically include a meditation hall, sutra library, and lodging for monks in addition to the shrines dedicated to specific Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. In addition to these, Nan Tien includes other amenities required for day-to-day operation: a museum, a conference room with cutting-edge technology for conferences and simultaneous translation, an auditorium that is well-equipped for large gatherings, a dining hall that serves the general public vegetarian buffet lunches, and Pilgrim Lodge, which provides lodging for both visitors and participants in retreats or celebrations held at Nan Tien.
Buddhism is a religion that honours nature. Most Buddhist practitioners seek to transcend worldly, material desires, and try to develop a close kindship with nature. Especially during the time of the Buddha, disciples often lived in very simple and crude thatched houses, and were able to develop and maintain a peaceful and joyful mind. Whether dwelling in a suburban area, a forest, by the waterside, in a freezing cave, or under a tree, they were always comfortable in their living situation. However, as Buddhist disciples grew in number, it was proposed by King Bimbisara and a follower named Sudatta that a monastery be built that would allow practitioners to gather in a common place and practice in a more organised manner. After the Buddha deeply considered and then wholeheartedly agreed with this idea, he gave his assent for devotees to make donations of monasteries. As a result, the Jetavana Monastery, the Bamboo Grove, and the Mrgara-matr-prasada (Sanskrit name of the donor) Lecture Hall were constructed. This was the beginning of Buddhist architecture in India.
In China, in 67 C.E., there was debate between Taoists and two Buddhist monks from India named Ksayapa-matanga and Gobharana. Due to this lively dialogue, the emperor’s interest and belief in Buddhism was ignited. Although Taoism was quite popular at this time, the emperor accepted and honoured Buddhism, ordering the construction of a monastery outside the city for Bhiksus (monk: male member of the Sangha), and a monastery inside the city for Bhiksunis (nun: female member of the Sangha). This was the birth of Chinese Buddhist architecture.
b) Types and Styles of Buddhist Architecture
Buddhist temples are often the center of cultural activities. From a modern viewpoint, temples can be compared to museums, for they contain precious and spectacular art forms, and in fact, are beautiful art forms themselves. Like art museums, they are a combination of architecture, sculpture, painting, and calligraphy. Temples offer a harmonised environment and a spiritual atmosphere that allows one to become serene and tranquil. They are valuable places for distressed persons to lay down their burdens, soothe their minds, and achieve a sense of calm.
In the early period of China, stupas were the main architectural structures being built. It was not until the Sui and Tang Dynasties that the hall (or shrine) became the focus. A stupa, sometimes referred to as a pagoda, can be considered the “high rise” of Buddhist architecture due to its tall, narrow shape that reaches toward the sky – sometimes with immense height. The concept and form of the Chinese stupa originated in India. The purpose of a stupa is to provide a place to enshrine the Buddha’s relics, where people can then come and make offerings to the Buddha. Beginning with a relatively simple style, the stupa has been transformed in China, with improvements and innovations that demonstrate the country’s artistic and architectural abilities. While maintaining a relatively consistent shape, stupas are constructed in a variety of sizes, proportions, colours, and creative designs. Although you can find stupas by waterfronts, in the cities, in the mountains, or in the country, they are all constructed to harmonise with and beautify the environment. The stupa is indeed one of the most popular types of architecture in China.
The Buddhist architecture of every region has its own unique character due to differing cultural and environmental factors. Close in proximity, Ceylon’s architecture is similar to India’s architecture. Burma, Thailand, and Cambodia also share a similar style, with structures that incorporate the use of wood into their design. Java’s stupas resemble those of Tibet, which are made of stone and represent the nine-layered Mandala (symbolic circular figure that represents the universe and the divine cosmology of various religions: used in meditation and rituals). Tibet’s large monasteries are typically constructed on hillsides and are similar in style to European architecture in which the buildings are connected to each other, forming a type of street-style arrangement.
Buddhist temples in China are commonly built in the emperor’s palace style, categorising them as “palace architecture.” This layout is designed with symmetry in mind, with the main gate and main hall in the center, and other facilities – including the celestial and the abbot’s quarters – lined up on either side. On one side a ceremonial drum is placed, and on the other, a ceremonial bell. Behind this symmetrical line of structures will be a guesthouse for lay visitors and the Yun Shui Hall for visiting monastics to reside during their stay.
The materials used in constructing the temples associated facilities include wood and tile, with the roof tiles painted a certain colour. Because wood is a difficult material to preserve over long periods of time, China has very few palace-style temples that have survived from the early ages. We are fortunate, however, that Fo Guang Temple, built out of wood during the Tang Dynasty, still stands. The main palace-style hall of Fo Guang Temple is still relatively pristine in appearance and sturdiness, and gives us a sense of the grandeur of this time. The exquisite art of the Tang Dynasty, including sculpture, paintings, and murals, is still displayed today in this surviving temple, and allows us to understand that this era was China’s high point of artistic expression. This temple became a national treasure and reminds us of China’s golden age of art and architecture.
Fo Guang Temple and the other temples that have persevered through the passage of time – although there are not very many – reveal the modifications of structure, decoration, and construction methods that change and evolve through different eras. They also serve as the visual, material memory of a certain age and area, helping us to study the region’s architectural and cultural history. However, as mentioned above, despite the fact that China has 5,000 years of history, preserved architecture is very limited. It is not simply due to the use of wood, which is highly susceptible to fire and decay, that prevents us from having more standing temples from the early ages to study today. Other reasons exist for the rarity of remaining temples. For instance, around the 16th century, some dynasties that rose to power ordered the demolition of the previous dynasty’s major architecture. Or, temples were harmed or even destroyed in various bouts of war and aggression. Regardless of the materials used in construction – wood, stone, clay, etc. – it was nearly impossible for an abundance of temples to survive due to human rivalry. Fortunately, Buddhist cave temples were relatively immune to weather destruction, and for the most part they also escaped human desecration. They are well preserved and make it possible to witness traditional architecture and ancient art.
Modern Buddhist temples often imitate ancient architecture. For example, the main shrines of Taiwan’s Fo Guang Shan, the United State’s Hsi Lai Temple, and Australia’s Nan Tien Temple are all designed based on Chinese architecture from the early ages. Many Buddhist temples today not only honour and preserve the Chinese culture, they have introduced and spread Chinese culture around the globe.
c) Cave Temples
In the history of Chinese Buddhist art and architecture, the most important link is the rock cave, or cave temple, and all of the art contained within. Cave temples are cavities of various sizes that are chiseled directly out of solid rock, sometimes directly on the face of sheer cliffs. Many are quite enormous. Within the rock caves, there are ornately carved statues, sculptures, and colourful paintings of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, arhats, and sutras. This artistic practice was started in 366 C.E. by a monastic named Le Zun, and continued until the 15th century. In some places, entire mountainsides are decorated with innumerable cave temples and gigantic carved statues. Among these countless cave temples, Dung Huang cave is the most famous for its impressive and grandiose mural. Other well-known caves in China include Longmen Caves in Louyang, Yungang Caves in Datong, and the Thousand Buddhas Cave in Jinang. Yungang Cave is especially well known for its grand size.
The creation of cave temples occurred over thousands of years, spanning several dynasties, and, unlike wooden temples that suffer dilapidation from the elements, are sheltered by massive rock and therefore remain standing as remarkable and majestic testimonials to Buddhism flourishing throughout China. The magnificence and grandeur of Buddhist art within the caves has awed the world and has captured the essence and detail of the teachings for all visitors to behold. In the eyes of artists and archaeologists, this type of Buddhist architecture is especially full of life, beauty, and evidence of the transformation and evolution of Buddhist art throughout time. They are treasures that hold an important place in China’s cultural, artistic, and architectural history.
-From the booklet, Building Connections: Buddhism & Architecture published by Buddha’s Light International Association, Hacienda Heights, USA.
Significance of architectural elements and layout of Nan Tien Temple
Chinese temple architecture has long been influenced by secular building design, especially that of imperial palaces. Structures and colours used throughout Nan Tien perpetuate this tradition. Grandiose roofs, visible from afar, indicate status: The greater the height and slope, the higher the rank. The Main Shrine thus has the most lofty and impressive roof. In dynastic China the colour yellow was used exclusively by the emperor. Hence, terracotta yellow roof tiles are symbols of importance, as are the yellow temple walls. Small mythical creatures lining the roof hips are traditional guardians against fire, a real danger in the days when the entire structure would have been built of wood. While much of Nan Tien’s roof framing is largely made of steel, it mimics timber construction with painted end beams extending under the eaves.
Red is another auspicious colour associated with the emperor. It was used to cover imperial columns, beams, and lintels, as is also the case at Nan Tien. Palace balustrades were typically carved white marble; Nan Tien’s concrete balustrades are fashioned in a similar manner and painted white.
Another element reminiscent of imperial design is the prominent raised podium used for Buddha or Bodhisattva statuary located at the rear of each shrine; it is akin to that upon which the emperor was enthroned in royal audience halls.
As in traditional palace layout, axial geometry reflecting an established hierarchy directs Nan Tien’s courtyard plan of lesser buildings leading up to the most significant. The courtyard arrangement furthermore implies a seated Buddha with the Main Shrine as the head, the surrounding buildings as the arms, and the courtyard as the lap.
The path of progression through the complex – ascending stairs to the Front Shrine, more stairs to the courtyard, continuing along a central walk to a final set of stairs before the Main Shrine – is similar to a Buddhist’s journey along the Middle Path to enlightenment.
In addition to the shrines dedicated to particular Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, temple compounds usually include a meditation hall, sutra library, and residence for monastics. Nan Tien incorporates these plus other facilities necessary for day-to-day function: A museum, conference room with advanced technology for conferences and simultaneous translation, auditorium which is well equipped for large gatherings, dining hall which provides vegetarian buffet lunches to the public and Pilgrim Lodge which offers accommodation for visitors as well as participants for retreats or celebrations held at Nan Tien.
-From the book, Entry Into the Profound: a first step to understanding Buddhism published by International Buddhist Association of Australia Incorporated.
Top 10 Buddhist Temples and Monasteries in China 2024
The Buddhism was introduced to China during the Christian era, gaining a foothold during the Western Han and Eastern Han Dynasties (202 BC – 220 AD). Rooted in the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, this profound philosophy found resonance across diverse realms of Chinese society. As Buddhism flourished, it became a pervasive influence, leaving an indelible mark on Chinese philosophy, literature, art, politics, medicine, and material culture.
Geographically, Buddhism is traditionally categorized into Han Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, and Theravada Buddhism. Doctrinally, Buddhism is classified into Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism. In terms of practice, Buddhism is further divided into Exoteric Buddhism (Mahayana) and Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism). Within Exoteric Buddhism, there are ten major schools including Chan (Zen), Pure Land, Tiantai, and Huayan.
The subsequent centuries witnessed the construction of numerous temples and monasteries, becoming sanctuaries where Buddhist teachings thrived with spiritual messages. Thus, to explore the top 10 Buddhist temples and monasteries in China becomes a journey through time. Also, more Buddhist destinations have been devotees’ top choices such as Top 10 Buddhist Grottoes & Caves in China and Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains in China ,etc.
1. Shaolin Temple (Zhengzhou) – China’s Premier Monastery and Birthplace of Martial Arts Mastery
Type: Chinese Buddhist Temple, Zen Buddhist Temple, UNESCO Cultural Heritage
History: over 1500 years
Recommended Visiting Time: 3~4 hours
Location: Songshan Mountain, Dengfeng, Zhengzhou
Highlights: Arhat Hall, Forest of Steles, Tripitaka Sutra Pavilion, Kungfu Show
Originally established in 495 during the Northern Wei Dynasty, Shaolin Temple perches majestically on Wuru Peak of Mount Songshan. Commissioned by Xiaowen Emperor to house the revered Indian monk Buddhabhadra, this sacred site became a cradle of spiritual wisdom. Just 32 years later, the venerable Indian monk Bodhidharma arrived, bringing with him the teachings of Zen Buddhism. Bodhidharma, now revered as the ancestor court of Zen Buddhism, transformed Shaolin Temple into the ancestral haven of Zen. This tale of spiritual evolution intertwines seamlessly with the roots of Chinese Martial Arts, as Shaolin Temple emerged as the birthplace of Chinese Martial. Spanning over 1500 years, Shaolin Temple has evolved into a globally renowned Buddhist sanctuary. Its architectural gems include the grand Daxiong Hall, the tranquil Chuzu Temple—home to the oldest wooden structure in Henan Province—and the revered Arhat Hall, where enlightened monks find eternal peace.
Venture into the Forest of Steles, where 248 brick pagodas stand sentinel, housing the ashes of eminent monks. This sacred grove represents the largest surviving collection of steles in China, a testament to the profound spiritual legacy of Shaolin Temple. Amidst this historical backdrop, the temple’s dazzling Kung Fu Show has become a magnet for visitors worldwide, adding a vibrant chapter to Shaolin’s narrative that echoes through the ages. After immersing themselves in the serene aura of the Shaolin Temple, many visitors often choose to extend their exploration to iconic sites like the Longmen Grottoes and White Horse Temple. This seamless transition allows them to delve even deeper into the rich tapestry of Buddhist culture, unlocking a more multifaceted experience.
2. White Horse Temple (Luoyang) – Trailblazing Sanctum of Chinese Buddhism’s Genesis
In the year 64 AD during the Han Dynasty, a captivating tale unfolded that would shape the destiny of White Horse Temple . Legend has it that the emperor, in a visionary slumber, witnessed a golden figure believed to be Buddha soaring to his palace. Fueled by this celestial encounter, the emperor dispatched envoys on a three-year odyssey to the enigmatic western regions in pursuit of sacred Buddhist scriptures. The culmination of this journey saw the arrival of two revered Indian monks, Kasyapamatanga and Dharmaratna, astride white horses laden with precious Buddhist statues and scriptures. In 68 AD, inspired by a fervor for Buddhism, the emperor conceived the idea of a temple dedicated to the teachings of the enlightened one. Thus, White Horse Temple emerged—the inaugural beacon of Chinese Buddhism. Within its sacred precincts, the two monks embarked on the monumental task of translating the Forty-two Chapters Buddhist Sutras, giving birth to the first Chinese Buddhist scripture. A pilgrimage of western monks followed, converging upon White Horse Temple to impart sermons and translate scriptures. In the next 150 years, 395 scriptures were translated to Chinese. As a result, the temple became the first Ashram for translating scripture.
Stepping into the temple, one encounters the architectural symmetry typical of Chinese tradition. Amidst the echoes of bygone eras, remnants of precious statues bear witness to the temple’s resilience through times of destruction. Guarding the entrance are stone horses, silent sentinels to the tales that unfold within. Traverse the halls in sequence, and you’ll stumble upon the tombs of the pioneering Indian monks. The journey culminates in the Cool and Clear Terrace—an erstwhile palace of translating scriptures, resonating with the wisdom of ages. Outside the temple is tiered with Qiyun Pagoda (oldest pagoda in China) and foreign temple, including Indian Temple, Thailand Temple and Burmese Temple, showing the cultural exchange and harmonious interplay between China and the world. Following a visit to the White Horse Temple, many travelers opt for an enriching detour to the legendary Shaolin Temple . Here, they can immerse themselves in the authentic world of Chinese martial arts.
3. Jokhang Temple (Lhasa) – Spiritual Center of Tibetan Buddhism Enshrining Shakyamuni Buddha’s Presence
Type: Tibetan Buddhist Temple, UNESCO Cultural Heritage
Highlights: Life-size Statue of Sakyamuni, Gold Roof
Jokhang Temple stands as the beating spiritual heart of Tibet, a hallowed pilgrimage site for devoted Buddhists. Its origins weave a tale back to the 7th century when the visionary Tibetan King Songtsan Gampo issued a decree to construct the temple, a sanctuary intended to cradle the sacred statue of Shakyamuni, a precious gift from Nepal. Initially dubbed Rasa, it is whispered that the name Lhasa itself found its inspiration in this revered artifact. Soon after, the enchanting saga expanded as the Wencheng Princess journeyed from China, gracing Jokhang with a life-sized statue of the 12-year-old Jowa Sakyamuni. This gift not only bestowed the temple with its identity, Jokhang, meaning the “house of Buddha,” but also infused it with an unparalleled spiritual vigor.
The architectural symphony of Jokhang Temple resonates with the sacred geometry of the Manda, a design that captivates the beholder from the very first glance. The crowning jewel is the resplendent Gold Roof, a beacon that guides one’s gaze to the panoramic vistas of Barkhor Street and the majestic Potala Palace. Venture within, and you’ll encounter a celestial congregation of Buddha statues, each cradled within its own chapel. The ethereal allure extends to the hanging Thangkas, inviting admiration from all who behold them. Beyond the temple’s confines, Jokhang Temple Square pulses with an unceasing rhythm of devout pilgrims, who prostrate themselves day and night. These fervent seekers traverse vast distances, arriving from the far reaches of the countryside annually, driven by an unwavering belief that their sincere devotion will usher happiness, safety, and well-being into the lives of their cherished families. Many travelers are drawn to embark on a classic journey through Lhasa. The spiritual ambiance of the sacred site sets the perfect tone for an immersive experience, making it a natural segue into the enchanting wonders that await in the heart of Tibet’s capital.
4. Lingyin Temple (Hangzhou) – Tranquil Retreat Amidst Lush Forests Eminent in Southeastern China
Highlights: Hall of Heavenly Kings, Palace of Medicine Buddha, Statues in the Grand Hall, Feilai Peak
Lingyin Temple, founded in 326 AD by an Indian monk enchanted by the ethereal peaks of Hangzhou, unveils a rich tapestry of history and spirituality. Picture this: an awe-inspiring temple nestled between the foliage-draped Feilai Peak and the majestic Begao Peak, aptly named “Linyin,” translating to the soul’s retreat. During the Northern and Southern Dynasty, the temple flourished, its growth fueled by the benevolence of Liangwu Emperor, endowing it with vast lands. At its zenith, Lingyin Temple was a vibrant community, boasting a staggering population of 3,000 monks. In the Song Dynasty, the revered Feilai Peak earned acclaim as one of the five Jiangnan Zen Buddhist Mountains in Jiangnan, a testament to Lingyin Temple‘s esteemed status.
Embarking on a journey to this ancient sanctuary, one unravels a tapestry of natural wonders and cultural marvels. Picture the Hall of Heavenly Kings, standing proudly as the first structure along Lingyin Temple’s axis, housing the divine Future Buddha. Within the Grand Hall of Great Sage, a captivating statue of Sakyamuni, perched on a lotus flower, emanates a palpable energy. Behind this masterful creation, a cluster of tridimensional statues, featuring Bodhisattva and 150 smaller figures, awaits discovery. The Palace of Medicine Buddha beckons worshipers seeking solace from ailments, a revered sanctuary for healing. And who could overlook the mesmerizing Feilai Peak? Venture into the grottoes within, and a treasure trove of Buddhist carvings unfolds, each chiseled masterpiece narrating tales of devotion and artistry. Following Lingyin Temple, tourists often opt to explore the allure of Hangzhou’s West Lake and Wuzhen Water Town, immersing themselves in the cultural wonders of Jiangnan (江南).
5. Dacien Monastery (Xi’an) – Boasting Great Wild Goose Pagoda and the Pinnacle of Xuanzang’s Legacy
Type: Ancient Buddhist Marvel, Tang Dynasty Legacy, UNESCO Cultural Heritage
Embark on a journey through time in the heart of Xi’an, where the Great Ci’en Temple stands as a living testament to over 1300 years of captivating history. Picture the scene during the Tang Dynasty, when this cultural oasis was brought to life, now revered as a UNESCO Cultural Heritage site that whispers tales of ancient Buddhist wonders.
The towering Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, a majestic silhouette against the Xi’an skyline, is the crown jewel of the temple. Imagine the celestial aura surrounding this architectural marvel, a tangible link to the spiritual legacy of the Tang Dynasty. Venture into the pagoda’s embrace, conceived to safeguard the sacred Buddhist scriptures that traversed the vast expanse from India with the fearless Xuanzang. Delve into the narrative of Xuanzang’s extraordinary odyssey as relics and artifacts unfold the chapters of his incredible journey. Traverse the temple grounds, where the echoes of Tang Dynasty architecture whisper secrets of a bygone era. As the sun sets, surrender to the allure of nightly cultural performances that weave a spellbinding tapestry, transforming the temple into an ethereal realm resonating with the spiritual essence of its ancient Buddhist origins. Following a visit to the majestic Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, it’s common for tourists to venture towards the globally acclaimed Terracotta Army and the ancient city walls. This natural progression allows them to delve further into history, seamlessly connecting the tranquility of the temple to the historical wonders.
6. Famen Temple (Baoji) – Custodian of Buddha’s Relics and Global Center of Spiritual Confluence
@法门寺 (famensi.com)
Type: Chinese Buddhist Temple, Imperial Temple
History: over 1700 years
Recommended Visiting Time: 2~4 hours
Location: Famen Town, Fufeng County, Baoji
Highlights: Sarira of Sakyamuni, Underground Palace, Famen Museum
Step into the captivating tale of Famen Temple, a sacred sanctuary with roots tracing back to the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Imagine the ebb and flow of its history as it stood resilient through reconstruction, evolving into an imperial templeduring the grandeur of the Tang Dynasty. Yet, the winds of change blew after the Ming and Qing Dynasties, casting a shadow over this once-majestic temple.
Fast forward to 1987, a pivotal year that unveiled the hidden treasures of Famen Temple’s Underground Palace. Picture the moment when over 2000 cultural relics, adorned with the splendor of the Tang Dynasty, emerged into the light. Buddha’s relics, glistening gold and silver artifacts, vibrant colored glaze, delicate ceramics, silk weaving tales of antiquity, and the enigmatic Finger Sarira of Sakyamuni – a discovery that resonated with the divine. Among the findings were four sarira, three deemed as duplicate relics, standing as guardians to the true relic – the sacred finger bone of Sakyamuni. This revelation transformed Famen Temple into a revered pilgrimage site, earning UNESCO’s acclaim as the ninth wonder of the world. Today, Famen Temple unfolds its narrative across three chapters – the Old Famen Pagoda, the Namaste Dagoba, and the Famen Temple Museum. Picture the ancient secrets housed within the Old Famen Pagoda, where the Underground Palace cradles the cherished duplicate relics. The Namaste Dagoba, a modern marvel shaped like folding hands, designed by the renowned architect Mr. Li Zuyuan, cradles the revered sarira of Sakyamuni since its construction in 2009. As you venture into the Famen Temple Museum, immerse yourself in valuable treasures, from the resplendent Gilded Bronze Buddha to the intricate Mystic Color Ceramics.
Tips : The Finger Sarira of Sakyamuni was only displayed in weekends, the lunar 1 st and 15th day of every month, and some special festivals usually. If you want to pay homage to the sarira, make sure you visit in the right day.
7. South Puto Temple (Xiamen) – Globally Revered Buddhist Academy, Nurturing Devotees and Facilitating Cross-Cultural Exchange
Type: Chinese Buddhist Temple, Buddhist Academy, Cultural Heritage Site
History: over 1000 years
Recommended Visiting Time: 2~3 hours
Location: Xiamen, Fujian Province
Highlights: Grand Hall of Buddha, Lotus Pond, Buddhist Scriptures Repository, Cultural Exchange Center
Established more than a millennium ago, South Puto Temple stands as a beacon of Buddhist spirituality, nestled in the coastal city of Xiamen, Fujian Province. The temple’s origins trace back to the Tang Dynasty, making it a venerable site of over 1000 years.The heart of South Puto Temple lies in its Grand Hall of Buddha, an architectural masterpiece that echoes with ancient chants and serenity. Adorned with intricate carvings and vibrant murals, the hall houses majestic statues of Buddhist deities, creating a sacred atmosphere for worship and meditation. As you stroll through the temple grounds, you’ll encounter the tranquil Lotus Pond, where delicate lotus flowers bloom in a serene aquatic dance. This scenic spot provides a perfect setting for contemplation and spiritual reflection
South Puto Temple takes pride in its Buddhist Scriptures Repository, a treasure trove of ancient texts and teachings. The repository is a testament to the temple’s commitment to preserving and disseminating Buddhist knowledge, attracting scholars and devotees alike. The temple serves as a hub for cultural exchange, welcoming visitors from around the world to explore the richness of Chinese Buddhism. The Cultural Exchange Center within the temple premises offers programs and activities that promote understanding and harmony among diverse communities. South Puto Temple, with its rich history and cultural significance, has garnered recognition as a prominent Buddhist academy. It continues to be a magnet for overseas followers seeking spiritual enlightenment and a deeper understanding of Buddhist teachings. The temple’s reputation extends far beyond its physical boundaries, making it a revered destination for those in search of tranquility and wisdom. After a serene visit to the South Putuo Temple, many travelers choose to extend their journey to the enchanting Tulou with its mesmerizing nightscapes and the charming island of Gulangyu for both cultural and scenic delights.
8. Hanging Temple (Datong) – Architectural Marvel Perched on a Cliff, an Enchanting Fusion of Three Religions
Type: Chinese Buddhist Temple, Taoist Temple, Confucian Temple
History: over 1500 years
Recommended Visiting Time: 2~4 hours 2 ~ 3 hours
Location: Hengshan Mountain, Hunyuan County, Datong
Highlights: Southern Pavilion, Northern Pavilion and Changxian Bridge
Perched daringly on a cliff, Hanging Temple lives up to its name, suspended a jaw-dropping 50 meters above the ground. Imagine the audacity of a temple clinging to the rock face without any visible crutches, a marvel that even earned it a spot on Time magazine’s list of the world’s top ten most bizarrely precarious structures. The temple’s saga unfolds like a gripping tale – a fearless feat of construction, defying gravity and leaving visitors awe-struck. Delve into the secrets of the Hanging Temple, where architectural ingenuity meets ancient mysticism. It was constructed without any supportive structures, Which adds an element of suspense to the narrative, eventually leading to the incorporation of pillars as a testament to the collective hesitation of those daring to step into this cliffside sanctuary. Behind the scenes, hidden upholders within the bedrock reveal a dance with mechanics, turning the temple into a masterpiece of engineering artistry. As the story unfolds, it becomes evident that the Hanging Temple is not merely a physical marvel but a harmonious convergence of China’s three venerable traditions – Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism.
Navigate the intricacies of the Hanging Temple’s main structures – the Southern Pavilion, Northern Pavilion, and Changxian Bridge – each telling a unique chapter in this cliffside chronicle. Picture the Southern Pavilion, a three-story spectacle housing Chunyang Palace, Sanguan Hall, Sangong Palace, and Leiyin Hall. In the grandeur of Sangong Palace, witness the temple’s largest hall, while the towering sculpture within Sanguan Hall stands as a silent guardian of its history. Traverse to the Northern Pavilion, where Wufo Hall, Guanyin Hall, and Sanjiao Hall unfold their tales. Here, statues of the founders of three religions – Shakyamuni, Laozi, and Confucius – find a sacred abode in the venerable Sanjiao Hall. Adorned with intricate carvings and a myriad of statues, the Hanging Temple invites explorers to unravel its rich tapestry of stories, where the line between architectural marvel and spiritual pilgrimage blurs into a captivating narrative.
Highlights: Five Halls, Dhammapala Weituo’s Statue, Teahouse, Vegetarian Restaurant
Embark on a journey through time at Wenshu Monastery, a spiritual haven that traces its roots back to the Sui Dynasty (605 ~ 617). With long history and strong Buddhist influence, Wenshu Monastery is one of the Four Chinese Zen Buddhist Monasteries. Though it located in the busy downtown area of Chengdu, Wenshu Monastery enjoys a tranquil atmosphere fabulously. Initially a modest courtyard, the monastery underwent a captivating transformation during the Song Dynasty, when it donned the name Xinxiang Temple, only to face the ravages of war. In a mystical twist during the Qing Dynasty, whispers of the Manjusri Bodhisattva’s ethereal presence, cloaked in red light, sparked a resurrection. The temple, now reborn, earned the name Wenshu Monastery, paying homage to the revered Manjusri.
Nestled amidst the hustle and bustle of Chengdu‘s downtown, Wenshu Monastery defies its urban surroundings, cocooning visitors in a serenity that feels almost otherworldly. Picture the main structures, traditional Chinese palaces adorned with the elegance of the Qing Dynasty, their upturned eaves reaching towards the heavens. Here, the axis from gate to Sutra Mansionunfolds like a sacred thread weaving through the tapestry of history. Within these ancient walls, a treasure trove of Buddhist scriptures, paintings, and calligraphy awaits, whispering stories of enlightenment to those who listen.
Beyond the quiet contemplation, Wenshu Monastery reveals itself as a haven for the soul. The revered Teahouse, a bastion of old-school charm, beckons with the aroma of Chinese tea and the allure of traditional folk shows. Step into the nearby Vegetarian Restaurant, where culinary excellence fuses with spirituality, offering a feast of delectable vegetarian dishes. Take a leisurely stroll through the monastery’s hallowed grounds, where every step unveils a chapter of the past. After immersing in the cultural ambiance, visitors often embark on a classic Chengdu tour, exploring attractions like the Panda Base. Moreover, they may opt for a deeper Sichuan experience, venturing to renowned sites such as the Leshan Giant Buddha, Mount Emei, and Jiuzhaigou. This flexible transition caters to diverse preferences, ensuring an enriching journey through the cultural and natural wonders of the region.
10. Foding Palace (Nanjing) – Reverent Abode of Buddha’s Relics with Architectural Grandeur
@牛首山风景区 (niushoushan.net)
Type: Fodin Temple – Ming Dynasty’s Architectural Marvel
History: Over 1200 years
Recommended Visiting Time: 3~4 hours
Location: Nanjing, Jiangsu Province
Highlights: Buddha’s Relic Pagoda, Hall of Heavenly Kings’ Majesty, Ming Dynasty Architectural Splendor, Linggu Pagoda’s Towering Presence
Step into the enchanting tapestry of Nanjing‘s Foding Temple, a resilient architectural masterpiece that has weathered the sands of time for over 1200 years. Here, the grandeur of the Ming Dynasty unfolds like a captivating saga, each stone whispering tales of an era long past. Picture the Buddha’s Relic Pagoda, a sacred space where the air itself seems to shimmer with the divine presence of relics. Immerse yourself in the hallowed ambiance, where the convergence of the sacred and architectural beauty dances through the corridors of time.
As you traverse the temple grounds, be transported to the majestic Hall of Heavenly Kings, where colossal statues stand as sentinels guarding the spiritual sanctuary. It’s not just a hall; it’s a living tableau of devotion and reverence, where the echo of centuries-old prayers reverberates through the air. The temple, a living embodiment of Ming Dynasty opulence, invites exploration into its labyrinth of intricate designs and historical significance. But the journey doesn’t end there; adjacent to the temple rises the towering Linggu Pagoda, a stoic symbol of endurance that pierces the sky, a silent witness to the passage of centuries. Foding Temple beckons you into a time-traveling odyssey, where the legacy of the Ming Dynasty isn’t confined to dusty history books but resonates through the very stones that have stood witness to centuries of stories. Having explored the serenity of Foding Temple, many travelers opt for more highlights of Nanjing including the Confucius Temple Nanjing, the picturesque Qinhuai River. This curated experience allows visitors to feel the essence of “misty rain in the south of the Yangtze”(烟雨江南).
Secular Dimensions of the Ashoka Stupa from the Changgan Monastery of the Song Dynasty.
Of Palaces and Pagodas: Palatial Symbolism in the Buddhist Architecture of Early Medieval China
Tracy Miller
Front. Hist. China 2015, 10(2): 222–263 DOI 10.3868/s020-004-015-0014-1
“Naturalizing Buddhist Cosmology in the Temple Architecture of China: The Case of the Yicihui Pillar,”
Tracy Miller,
In The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Seminars, no. 9,
edited by Deena Ragavan, 17−39. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
“The Mapping of Sacred Space: Images of Buddhist Cosmographies in Medieval China.”
Wong, Dorothy.
In The Journey of Maps and Images on the Silk Road, edited by Philippe Forêt and Andreas Kaplony, 51–79. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2008.
Towards an Effective Architectural Form: The Composition of Squareness and Roundness Based on Scale Proportion—Evidence from the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda.
The sum of the rules, squares and circles of heaven and earth: a study on the compositional proportions of ancient Chinese capitals, building groups and individual buildings
(text version, illustration version)
Wang Nan’s book on the history and theory of ancient architecture, planning, design and protection of ancient buildings
Heaven and Earth in Early Han Thought: Chapters Three, Four, and Five of the Huainanzi
SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture Author John S. Major Edition illustrated Publisher SUNY Press, 1993 ISBN 0791415856, 9780791415856 Length 388 pages
Revisiting the Squinch: From Squaring the Circle to Circling the Square.
“Squaring the circle,” constructing a square that has the same area in a given circle using compass and straightedge, has long been a subject for intellectual investigations among mathematicians and philosophers from antiquity to the pre-modern era. The search for this unattainable ideal articulation found its way into Persian architecture with a different approach: circling the square. This architectonic approach, complementing the philosophical view, started from the square at hand, the chamber, to the circle of the vault. The transformation of the cubic to the domical space is mediated through the squinch, intermediary structural element that unifies the two structures. The two seemingly opposite directions of transforming of one form to another (i.e., square to circle or vice versa) allude to the metaphysical and material attributes involved in this process. This paper discusses the mutual relationship between the intellectual and material transformations and the intermediary role of the squinch.
References
Al–Būzjānī, Abū’l–Wafā Muhammad. 1971. The Arithmetic of Abu Al-Wafa’ al-Buzjani. Introduction and Commentary by A. S. Saidan. Amman: Jamiyat Umal al-Matabi al-Taawinia. (In Arabic)
Ardalan N., Bakhtiar L. (1973) The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture. University of Chicago Press, ChicagoGoogle Scholar
Ashrafi, A. and M. R. Ahmadi, M. R. 2005. Al-Kashi’s Method for Calculations of Arches. Ayeneh Miras 3: 61-77.
Blunt W. (1966) Isfahan: Pearl of Persia. Paul Elck Productions, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Buzurgmihri, Z. 1992. Hindisa dar Mimari (Geometry in Persian Architecture). Tehran: Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization. (In Farsi)
Dold-Samplonius, Yvonne. 2002. Calculation of Arches and Domes in 15th Century Samarkand. Nexus II: Architecture and Mathematics, Kim Williams, ed. Pisa: Pacini Editore.
Galdieri, E. 1984. Masgid-i Gum’a. Vol 3, Research and Restoration Activites, 1973-1978, New Observations, 1979-1982. Rome: IsMeo.
Grabar, O. 1990. The Great Mosque of Isfahan. London: I B Tauris & Co. Ltd.
Haji Ghasemi, K. 2001. Ganjnameh, Masajid-i Isfahan. Tehran: Shahid Beheshti University Press and Rowzaneh Press.
Jabal Ameli A. (1995) Esfehan Masgid-I Gum’a. Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization, IsfahanGoogle Scholar
Jazbi, A. 1987. Risāleh Tāq va Ajaz. Tehran: Soroush Publications. (Partial Translation of Miftah al-hisab).
Jazbi, A. 2005. Persian Geometry: Applied Geometry Abul-Wafa Muhammad Buzjani. Tehran: Soroush Publications. (Persian translation with additions)
Necipoßlu, G. 1995. The Topkapi Scroll. Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture. Los Angeles: Getty Center Publication.
We examine how three authors, Dante Alighieri, Margaret Cavendish, and James Joyce, employed allusions to the classical problem of squaring the circle, i.e., using only a compass and a straightedge to construct a square whose area equals that of a given circle. These discussions will be against the background of what was known mathematically about solving the problem when they wrote—respectively, in the fourteenth, seventeenth, and twentieth centuries. We will also discuss, as best as can be determined, what each author believed, knew, or could have known about the mathematical status of the problem and what this reveals about their use of the construction in their writings.
“From Pagoda to Pavilion: The Transition of Spatial Logic and Visual Experience of Multi-Story Buddhist Buildings in Medieval China”
Ancient Chinese architecture boasts a rich variety of styles and high levels of construction. There were residences, official buildings, palaces, temples, altars, gardens, bridges, city walls and so on. Construction took the form of lou (multistoryed buildings), tai (terraces), ting (pavilions), ge (two-storey pavilions), xuan (verandas with windows), xie (pavilions or houses on terraces), wu (rooms along roofed corridors), etc. All these architectural forms were recorded in early documents of Chinese history. Pagodas, however, appeared relatively late in China. A Chinese term for pagoda did not exist until the first century. The reason is that this new form of architecture was introduced to China only when Buddhism spread to the country.
The origin of pagodas, like that of Buddhism, can be traced to India. The relation between Buddhism and pagodas is explained in Buddhist literature, which says that pagodas were originally built for the purpose of preserving the remains of Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism. According to Buddhist scripture, when Sakyamuni’s body was cremated after his death, his disciples discovered that his remains crystallized into unbreakable shiny beads. They were called sarira, or Buddhist relics, as were his hair, teeth and bones. Later, the remains of other Buddhist monks of high reputation were also called sarira. Since more often than not, no such precious shiny beads could be found in the ashes of cremated Buddhist monks, other things, such as gold, silver and crystal objects or precious stones, were used instead.In Sanskrit pagoda (or stupa) meant tomb. Before the pagoda was introduced to China, it had already had a considerable period of development in India. Beside serving as tombs, pagodas were built in grottoes or temples for offering sacrifices to people’s ancestors. When the Indian word for pagoda was first translated into Chinese, there were some twenty different versions. A renowned scholar of the Qing Dynasty, Ruan Yuan (1764-1849), summarized the history of the pagoda’s development in China in his essay “On the Characteristics of Pagodas” included in his Yan Jing Shi Ji (Collection of Essays from Yan Jing Studio). He said that during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) both the doctrine and preachers of Sakyamuni’s religion were called futu. Their residence and the object of their worship was a building of seven or nine storeys, each surrounded by banisters.
In Sanskrit this kind of building was called a stupa. From the Jin Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (265-589), when the Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese, there was no equivalent for the Hindu word for pagoda in the Chinese language, nor was there anything in China similar to the peculiar structure. Therefore, a new Chinese character was created to stand for the Buddhist tower, or pagoda. The new character was ta, which first appeared in Zi Yuan(Essays on Chinese Characters) by Ge Hong (284-364), a scholar of the Eastern Jin Dynasty.
Ta is a much better translation than many other versions, such as futuor fotu, because it contains the radical meaning earth or soil, so it can be understood as an indication of a tomb. Some scholars believed that the character ta could be interpreted as an earthen tomb in which Buddha was buried, so it was a satisfactory equivalent for the word pagoda.
Buddhism spread in China not only because of its doctrines but also because of its concrete images, such as the religious sculptures and pagodas. It became a popular religion after the White Horse Temple was built near Luoyang, Henan Province, during the reign (58-75) of Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Legend has it that the emperor once dreamed of a golden man more than three meters tall with a halo over his head flying around his imperial palace. The next day the emperor called his ministers to court and asked them to interpret his dream. One of his ministers, Fu Yi, said, “In the West there is a god called Buddha. The golden man Your Majesty saw in your dream looked like him.” So the emperor dispatched officials, Cai Yin, Qin Jing, Wang Zun and others, to India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan to learn the doctrine of Buddhism. When they reached Central Asia, they met two Buddhist masters from India and acquired from them Buddhist scriptures and a statue of Buddha. They also invited the Indian Buddhists to China to lecture on Buddhism.
When the Indian Buddhists arrived in Luoyang, then the capital of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Emperor Ming gave them a warm welcome and built a temple for them to live in the suburbs of Luoyang.
Originally, the Chinese character si, meaning temple, stood for an official building that, in ancient China, ranked second only to the emperor’s imperial palace. To show his respect for Buddhism, the emperor ordered that the residence of the Indian Buddhists be called a si, and ever since, Buddhist temples have been called that.
If pagodas were brought to China from India, what did the pagodas in India look like?
There used to be two kinds of pagodas in India: those used as tombs for Buddhist relics were called stupas; those serving as shrines or monuments were called temples. No relics were buried in the latter in most cases. Both kinds of pagodas underwent great changes in style after being introduced to China and became integrated with China’s traditional architecture and culture.
The latter pagoda was also called caitya in Sanskrit. In India they were originally grottoes dug out of stone cliffs. Religious sculptures were placed inside the caves and small pagodas were built at the back as memorials. Usually space was cleared in front of the pagoda for religious ceremonies. After being introduced to China, this kind of structure developed into the so-called grotto temple. Typical Chinese grottoes were much smaller than their Indian counterparts, so no religious ceremonies could be held inside. Usually a separate temple was built in front of or beside the grottoes to house Buddhist monks and for assemblies as well. The pagoda placed at the back of an Indian grotto changed into an ornamental pillar either at the back or in the middle of the grotto. In fact, the Chinese temple was different from its Indian counterpart in both form and function. In India there was once a kind of special grotto called vihara in which Buddhist monks lived. In the middle of such a grotto a square or rectangular platform was built for Buddhist preachers, to sit on to give lectures on Buddhism. At the back of the grotto a small pagoda sculpture was erected in front of a small niche, serving as a place for praying. Along the front and side walls of the grotto many tiny rooms were dug out, each big enough for only one monk to sleep in. Since each of the rooms was merely one square zhang (about ten square meters) in size, later the bedrooms of the abbots and monks in a Buddhist monastery were called fangzhang(meaning one square zhang) in Chinese. Of course, most Buddhist abbots actually lived in much bigger rooms. Such grotto temples, popular in the early development of Buddhism in India, were found in very few places in China. In fact, the Dunhuang Grottoes in Gansu Province may be the only place where remnants of similar structures can be found today.
For instance, Caves No.267 to 271 at Dunhuang, dug during the Northern Liang period (397-439), used to be a group of related caves, with Cave No. 268 as the center, to which Caves No. 267 and 270 on the southern wall and Caves No. 269 and 271 on the northern wall were attached. In fact, all four attached caves were merely recesses big enough for only one person to sit with bent knee. It is believed that they were dug for the monks to sit in meditation, not for them to live in. Cave No. 285, dug during the Western Wei period (535-556), also contains four such recesses in its southern and northern walls, less than a square meter. On the ceiling of the main cave there is a painting of thirty-five monks sitting in meditation in some remote mountain caves. From their size, the recesses as a place of meditation were only symbolic.
The characteristics of these caves show that the so-called vihara underwent great changes after they were introduced to China from India.
We have learned that the pagodas designed as tombs for Buddhist relics were soon integrated with China’s traditional architecture and culture and assumed Chinese characteristics after they were introduced to China from India. Most ancient pagodas still existing today in China are the so-called temple pagodas of Chinese style. Though they are called sarira pagodas, sometimes Buddhist relics are not inside.
Few stupas believed to hold any relics of Sakyamuni have survived even in India or they have been destroyed and reconstructed repeatedly over the years retaining little of their original features. Among the earliest of such stupas is one built around the first century. It resembles a tomb with a domelike top in the middle. A pole with a dish-shaped object was erected on the top, and a platform surrounded by a balustrade served as the base. Stairs in front lead up to the platform. Four gateways face in four directions. On each side of the front gate is an ornamental column with exquisite relief sculptures of lions. They are similar to the ornamental columns erected in front of ancient tombs in China.
Another stupa featuring an inverted-bowl-shaped body is located forty-five kilometers from the town of Gorakopa in northern India. It is believed to be the place where a famous Indian Buddhist monk attained nirvana. Though it has been destroyed and reconstructed several times, it still resembles the style of the great stupa mentioned earlier, which looks like a big tomb. The Lamaist dagobas in China have inherited this style.
Great changes have also taken place in the structure of Indian pagodas. At Buddh Gaya in Gaya County, Bihar State, there is a pagoda where Sakyamuni is believed to have awakened to the truth of Buddhism. Behind the pagoda there is a bodhi tree and under the tree is a solid rock seat, called vajrasana. Legend has it that Sakyamuni attained his Buddhahood while sitting on this seat. The structure of the pagoda, therefore, is called the vajrasana style, which is completely different from that of the stupas described earlier. Pagodas of the vajrasana style also appeared in China. The earliest images of this kind of pagoda are in a mural in Cave No. 285 of the Mogao Grottoes at Dunhuang, a work of the Northern Zhou Dynasty (557-581), and a small stone sculpture preserved in Chongfu Temple in Shuoxian County, Shanxi Province, believed to have been made in 454. The Dunhuang mural shows a square platform on which stand five pagodas; the one in the middle is much bigger and more spectacular than the ones at the four comers. Each of the five pagodas has seven storeys with a precious bead on top. Another small stone sculpture, made in 455 and found at the old site of Chongfu Temple, and a similar one made during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) and found in Nanchan Temple on Mount Wutai also bear this style, but the Vajrasana in the mural at Dunhuang more closely resembles existing structures than the small stone sculptures at Chongfu Temple.
4 Types of Chinese Architecture That You Need to Know
The Chinese have used the same architectural model for their imperial and religious buildings for more than two thousand years. It consists of three elements: a platform, a framework of pillars and beams, and non-load-bearing walls.
The buildings usually incorporate the main gate, rectangular enclosures or courtyards, and a series of pavilions arranged in a line and facing north. Almost all buildings were constructed of wood, but due to vulnerability to fire very few survive; the oldest date from the Tang period. Here are some representative Chinese architectures.
Pavilions
The structure of the pavilions is always the same. They consist of a platform of rammed earth or stone and a grid of wooden pillars. The front part always incorporates an odd number of intercolumns. The meeting of pillars and beams is fixed with brackets (dougong), which support the structure and allow for overhanging roofs. The wood is lacquered in intense tones, and the roofs are curved, of tile or thatch.
Plant building and plant pavilion
Even before pagodas, multi-storey buildings (lou) were built in China, ranging from two-storey private residences to towering gazebos. The plant pavilions (ge) were used for storage and had only doors and windows at the front. These buildings incorporated the usual three elements: base, pillars, and non-load-bearing walls. Plant pavilions were used to store important items, such as libraries of Buddhist sutras or colossal statues like Puning Si in Chengde.
Pagoda
The pagoda or ta is inspired by the Indian stupa and began to develop with the advent of Buddhism in the 1st century AD. Pagodas, with their multiple storeys, were often erected in Buddhist temple complexes (later built outside of them), with the purpose of housing a religious statue.
They were made of brick, stone or wood. The pagoda, an archetypal element of Chinese architecture, originated as a concept and form in India from the Buddhist stupa. But Chinese architectural traditions and styles were soon incorporated into pagodas as well, as can be seen in the pillar pagodas of the Yungang caves, with their multiple heights. Over 1,500 years, pagodas developed an incredible variety of forms, from pillars to flattened tombs to tall multi-story towers.
They were built of stone, brick, or wood and could be square or multi-sided. When they became typical Chinese buildings, their function changed slightly. Their central role in the temple was taken over by the much more functional pavilion. The feng shui provided the construction of pagodas without temples in the mountains on the outskirts of the cities or next to the rivers, to bring good luck or to avoid floods. The Hindu stupa was a symbolic tomb and receptacle for Buddhist relics that inspired the birth of the Chinese pagoda. But the stupa did not gain strength until the 13th century, when the Yuan imported Tibetan Buddhist stupas (also known as dagobas) and made this architecture popular for later dynasties.
The Dali pagoda is a beautiful example of a pagoda with closely spaced stone eaves. It is square in plan and has a top in the shape of a lotus flower bud. The wooden pagoda of the Fogong Si of Yingxian is one of the most delicate remains. This octagonal building dates from 1056 and is called Sakyamuni pagoda.
Ornamental arch
The pailou or paifang is an arch of wood, brick or stone, sometimes tiled with glazed tiles. It is often inscribed with information about its construction. Pailou were erected at crossroads, temples, bridges, government offices, parks, and tombs.
Defensive walls
The first walls were made of earth, which was crushed and hardened with mallets or moistened to obtain mud and pressed against reed mats. Later brick was used. City walls were usually square, with the main gate to the south. The word for city, cheng, also means wall. Pingyao wall, made of rammed earth and brick and 10 meters high, towers and rampart provided an effective defense. It dates from the Ming period, but part of it has collapsed recently.
Architectural details
The interpretation of detail in Chinese architecture is very interesting. The use of yellow tiles, for example, was reserved for the emperor. The Nine Dragons, present in the Forbidden City and elsewhere, are also imperial: the dragon is a symbol of yang, the masculine principle, and by extension, the emperor.
The chiwen, a bird capable of extinguishing fire with water, appears on the ends of the roofs as protection against fire. The bracket (dougong) transmits the weight of the roof to the pillar. It is a complex constructive and ornamental element that does not carry nails. It fixes the structure of tall buildings, such as the Yellow Crane Pavilion in Wuhan.
More on cities and architecture in China:
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Pagoda, originally meant tomb in Sanskrit, refers to the place where the ashes of ancient Indian monks were buried after their death. It originated in India and was brought into China along with Buddhism in the Han Dynasty. Nowadays, such ancient architecture is still widely respected by the Buddhist disciples and praised as an outstanding architectural form from ancient China.
Origin of Chinese Pagoda
Around the 1st century, the Indian stupa was introduced into China. To better suit the Chinese aesthetics, ancient Chinese people integrated the original stupa styles with the traditional pavilions and attics, creating the pagoda with multiple floors and a nine-layer tower spire.
Chinese Pagoda vs. Indian Pagoda
Like the Chinese, the Indians also believed in the idea of a round heaven and square ground.
Therefore, the semi-circular stupa represented the Buddhist cosmology. When the stupa was brought into China, ancient Chinese people created the round top with square-shaped attics at the bottom functioning as supporters. Not only that, but Chinese people also imposed the humanized content on Buddhism. They built temples together with pagodas. Therefore, where there is a pagoda, there is a temple. Inside the temple, divine halls were built to offer sacrifices to Buddhas along with the pagoda. For instance, the Big Wild Goose Pagoda became an elegant building that attracted numerous scholars to visit. The Six Harmonious Pagoda nearby the Qiantang River has become the beacon for the riverboat at night. While the pagoda inside the Kaiyuan Temple in Hebei province also served as a spot for military observation. The Guojie Tower of Juyongguan Great Wall also functions as a pedestrian passway. In some places, pagodas were built to drive away evil spirits. In various ways, Chinese people changed the mysterious and untouchable Indian stupas to something practical. Therefore, the Chinese pagoda is a human building.
Number Culture of Pagoda
One of the outstanding characteristics of Chinese pagoda is the pagoda roof.
No matter the Dense-eave Pagodas, Pavilion Style Pagodas, or the Fengshui Pagodas, the floors of the pagodas are in an odd number, like one layer, three layers, five layers, or more. It’s sporadic to have a pagoda that has an even number of layers in its roof. In contrast, the pagoda level can be in square, hexagon, octagon, or dodecagon. There is no pagoda level with odd-numbered sides. Besides the structural reasons, such design was meant to echo the traditional cosmology of Yin and Yang. Ancient Chinese people granted the numbers with philosophical significance, like the odd numbers represent heaven, and they are Yang, and the even numbers represent the ground, and they are Yin. Heaven is round and high; therefore, odd numbers must be used. While the ground is square and low, even numbers must be used.
From the perspective of Buddhism interpretation, the four sides of the pagoda symbolize the Four Noble Truths, the six sides represent the Cycle Through the Six Worlds, eight sides symbolize the Eight Phases of Enlightenment, and the twelve sides mean the Twelve-linked Causal Formula. While the odd numbers of layers represent the innocence and sublimity in Buddhism.
The Big Wild Goose Pagoda was first built in 652 AD to store the
scriptures brought back by monk Xuan Zang from India. With a height of 64 meters and seven stories, the pagoda is a wood-and-brick structure without cement. Inside the pagoda, there are stairs from which people can climb to the top of the pagoda and have a bird’s eye view of the surroundings. There are four stone doors on all sides at the bottom of the pagoda and exquisitely engraved Buddha statues on the door lintels. In contrast, the Dharma Preaching Paintings on the western lintel contain the temple buildings in the Tang Dynasty, which became an essential material for studying architecture at that time.
2.Yingxian Wooden Pagoda in Shanxi
The Wooden Pagoda in Yingxian, Shanxi, is the oldest and largest
wooden pagoda in the world. Built in 1056 (Liao Dynasty), the pagoda is 67.13m in height, 30m in diameter at the bottom, and has five layers and six eaves. The pagoda plane is octagonal. The whole pagoda was applied with 54 different kinds of brackets, which makes it the representative pavilion-style pagoda with the most brackets. These brackets are so firm that the pagoda has stood upright for 900 years and survived multiple times of earthquakes.
3.Six Harmonious Pagoda in Hangzhou, Zhejiang
Situated in Yuelun Mountain by the Qiantang River in Hangzhou,
the Six Harmonious Pagoda is a Song-era pagoda. It’s an octagonal pagoda with 59.89m in height. The exterior of the pagoda has 13 floors, while the interior has seven floors. There are stairs inside so people can walk to the pagoda top. The exquisite images of brick carvings on the Sumeru seat like the flying fairies, musicians, sea pomegranates, lotus, phoenixes, lions, unicorns, and cloud patterns are valuable materials in studying the decorations from the Southern Song Dynasty.
4.Three Pagodas of Chongsheng Temple in Dali, Yunnan
Located in front of the Chongsheng Temple in Dali, Yunnan,
the Three Pagodas are standing in a triangle shape. The big pagoda in the middle is named the Qianxun Pagoda; it’s a hollow brick pagoda in dense-eave style. The entire pagoda is 69.13m and has 16 floors. Each floor is carved with stone Buddha statues. The smaller pagodas on both sides of the big pagoda are 42.19m in height, and both of them are 10-layer octagonal solid brick pagodas with a layer of white mudskin on the pagoda body. Inside the pagodas, there are over 600 pieces of relics from Nanzhao (738 – 902) and Dali States (937-1094) Periods.
5.Iron Tower in Kaifeng, Henan
Formerly known as Kaibao Temple Tower, the Iron Tower is built in 1049 (northern Song Dynasty). It’s famous for its outstanding use of traditional wooden structures. The whole tower is 55.88 meters in height and covered with colorful glazed bricks, on which a dozen kinds of patterns and images are carved. Meanwhile, the exterior glazed bricks are all in brown color, and they are very solid. Therefore, people call the tower the Iron Tower.
6.Tiger Hill Pagoda in Suzhou, Zhejiang
Tiger Hill Pagoda is first built in 601 (Sui Dynasty) and restored in the early Song Dynasty. It’s 47.5 meters high, about 6000t in weight. There are seven floors, and the pagoda plane is octangular. Due to the foundation problems, the Tiger Hill Pagoda has been titled northwest for 2°40′ degrees since the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644). Therefore, the Tiger Hill Pagoda is regarded as the oriental Leaning Tower of Pisa.
7.Songyue Temple Pagoda
First built in 523 (Northern Wei Dynasty), Songyue Temple Pagoda is the earliest brick pagoda in existence and the only dodecagonal pagoda in China. The pagoda plane is almost circular, and the pagoda body is divided into upper and lower parts, which is very similar to the Indian stupa. Therefore, the Songyue Temple Pagoda is regarded as a representation of the early dense-eave pagoda. The whole pagoda is made from small thin bricks and mud. It’s quite a miracle that the pagoda can stand upright for 1400 years.
8.Zhenfeng Pagoda in Anqing, Anhui
Standing inside the Yingjiang Temple nearby the Yangtze River,
the Zhenfeng Pagoda is built in Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644). It’s a pavilion-style octagonal pagoda in a masonry structure. The entire pagoda is 60.86m in height, and it has seven floors. It’s said that the pagoda was built to rejuvenate the literary culture in Anqing. Before the Ming Dynasty, there were no famous scholars from Anqing. After observing the geography in Anqing, some astrologists believed that the lack of scholars lies in the nearby Yangtze River. A pagoda must be built to control it and retain scholars. The story itself is absurd; what interesting was that after the building of Zhenfeng Pagoda, some famous ministers and scholars like Fang Yizhi, Zhang Ying, Zhang Tingyu, Zhao Wenkai, and others did emerge in Ming and Qing Dynasties.
9.Leifeng Pagoda in Hangzhou, Zhejiang
Located on the Xizhao Mountain on the south bank of the West Lake,
the Leifeng Pagoda was built by the King Zhongyi of Wuyue State (907-978); his concubine had a son. It’s an octagonal pagoda in pavilion style and has five floors. According to the folklore Tale of the White Snake, this pagoda used to contain the Madam White Snake after she was defeated by the monk Fahai until the pagoda fell. Therefore, some people believed that Leifeng Pagoda has the power to control supernatural things. The fact is that the old Leifeng Pagoda collapsed in 1924. The one people see today is a replica of the original pagoda.
10.Lingguang Pagoda in Changbai, Jilin
Lingguang Pagoda is located on the southwest side of Changbai County,
Jilin. Built in Bohai State (698 – 926) of the Tang Dynasty, the pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda in northeast China and a representative relic from Bohai State. The whole pagoda is in pavilion style, and it is 12.86m in height and has five layers. The decorative bricks, the characteristic windows, and the underground palaces are valuable materials for studying the relationship between Bohai State (698-926) and Tang Dynasty (618-907).
Performing Center in a Vertical Rise: Multilevel Pagodas in China’s Middle Period
Round Heaven and Square Earth, Unity of Pagoda and Statuary— A Study on the Geometric Proportions of Space and Statues inside the Timber Pagoda in Ying County[J].
Nan Wang received his Bachelor of Architecture at the School of Architecture, Tsinghua University in 2001 and his Ph.D. in the School of Architecture, Tsinghua University in 2008, studying under Professor Wu Liangyong. Since 2009, he has been a lecturer at Tsinghua University, teaching architectural and urban design courses. He has been a Visiting Professor at the Institute of The Forbidden City in Beijing since 2019. His main research interests are the history and proportions of traditional Chinese architecture. His most important academic books are Rules of Square and Circle, Harmony of Heaven and Earth: A Research on the Proportions of Chinese Traditional Capital Cities and Architectures (2018), The Traditional Architecture of Beijing (2016), and Ancient Capital City Beijing (2012). Since 2013, Nan Wang has published nine volumes of the series of “Epic of Architecture” in Duku, a famous Chinese magazine on arts and humanities, including “The Pantheon,” “Tombs of Han Dynasty,” “Pagodas and Grottoes Coming to the East, “Stone Remains of the Six Dynasties, “Golden Heaven, “Dreams back to Tang Dynasty,” “Sacred Monasteries,” ”Mysterious Book of Ying Zao,” and “Structure of Wood and Spirit of Zen.”
Nan Wang 王南 received his Bachelor of Architecture at the School of Architecture, Tsinghua University in 2001 and his Ph.D. in the School of Architecture, Tsinghua University in 2008, studying under Professor Wu Liangyong. Since 2009, he has been a lecturer at Tsinghua University, teaching architectural and urban design courses. He has been a Visiting Professor at the Institute of The Forbidden City in Beijing since 2019. His main research interests are the history and proportions of traditional Chinese architecture. His most important academic books are 《規矩方圓天地之和 – 中國古代都城，建築群與單體建築之構圖比例研究》 (Rules of Square and Circle, Harmony of Heaven and Earth: A Research on the Proportions of Chinese Traditional Capital Cities and Architectures), 2018, 《北京古建築地圖》 (The Traditional Architecture of Beijing), 2016, and 《古都北京》 (Ancient Capital City Beijing), 2012. Since 2013, Nan Wang has published nine volumes of the series of 建築史詩 (Epic of Architecture) in Duku, a famous Chinese magazine on arts and humanities, including 《萬神殿堂》 (The Pantheon), 《漢家陵闕》(Tombs of Han Dynasty), 《塔窟東來》(Pagodas and Grottoes Coming to the East), 《六朝遺石》(Stone Remains of the Six Dynasties), 《金色天國》 (Golden Heaven), 《夢迴唐朝》 (Dreams back to Tang Dynasty), 《修道聖所》(Sacred Monasteries), 《營造天書》(Mysterious Book of Ying Zao), and 《木骨禪心》(Structure of Wood and Spirit of Zen).
An Infinity of Stupas: Types of Chinese Buddhist Pagodas
浮图万千：中国古代佛塔三讲
#1 Multi-storied 独上高楼 #2 Multi-eaved and Flower-shaped 密檐如华 #3 Bottle-shaped and Vajra-based 梵藏壇城
WANG Nan 王南 Ph.D., Lecturer School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing Visiting Professor Institute of The Forbidden City, Beijing Visiting Scholar Department of History of Art and Architecture, Harvard University
Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture
Key Terms
China
Korea
Japan
Architecture
Buddhism
Buddhist Architecture
Stupas
Pagodas
Palaces
Pavalion
Pillars
Ancient
Art
History
Religion
Zhoubi Suanshu (周髀算經) [The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven]
Zhou bi suan jing (The Arithmetic Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven), which is sometimes written as Chou Pei Suan Ching
Jiuzhang Suanshu (九章算術) [The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]
‘Jiuzhang Suanshu’ and ‘Zhoubi Suanjing’
Chiu chang suan shi (The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art), which is sometimes written as Jiu zhang suan shu
Tianyuan difang (Heaven is round and Earth is square)
Xiangtianfadi Guijufangyuan
Guijufangyuan Futuwanqian
Guijufangyuan Fuzhijusuo
Guijufangyuan Duxianggouwu
Jinchenggongque Taiziyuanfang
Guijufangyuan Tiandezhongzhou
Yingzao Fashi 營造法式 (Treatise on Architectural Methods, 1103 CE)
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: “Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Source: Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
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Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture
“Design Principles of Early Stone Pagodas in Ancient Korean Architecture: Case Studies on the Stone Pagodas at Chŏngnimsa and Kamŭnsa Buddhist Temples”
Ritual architecture, or lizhi jianzhu 禮制建築, is a unique category in traditional Chinese architecture. Compared to other traditional Chinese architectural types-for instance, Buddhist architecture 佛教建築, palace architecture 宮殿建築, or mausoleum architecture 陵墓建築-ritual architecture is not as clearly defined and contains a much broader range of buildings with a variety of functions.1 Ritual architecture originally refered to structures built to fulfill the Confucian ideals. However, since Confucianism as a religious practice is not as specifically defined as Buddhism or Daoism, structures for worship, ritual sacrifice, or memorial function that cannot be fitted into Buddhism or Daoism are all grouped under the category of ritual architecture, including such diverse building types as the memorial archways for chaste women, shrines dedicated to gods of the five sacred peaks, Confucian temples, and the Altars of Heaven. The complicated nature of ritual architecture originates from the diversity of local beliefs in traditional Chinese society, which cannot be simplified as merely “Confucian.” Tracy Miller’s book The Divine Nature of Power: Chinese Ritual Architecture at the Sacred Site of Jinci takes up the challenge and makes a fine contribution to our understanding of the complexity of both ritual practices in ancient China and the physical environment that was created by and for such diverse and often contradictory practices. The main argument of the book is that the original source of divinity at the site of modern day Jinci is neither the founder of the Jin state, Shu Yu of the Zhou Dynasty, nor his mother, Yi Jiang, as is widely assumed,2 but the life-giving water as represented by the local water goddess-the Spirit of the Jin Springs (pp. 10, 178). Such a conclusion is supported by recent archaeological discoveries (p. 177), a closer examination of historical documents (p. 178), and the extant buildings, sculptures, and paintings in and the general layout of the Jinci complex (pp. 12-13, 179-184). What led to the confusion and opposition about the identity of the main deity worshiped at Jinci are the competing local patronages, whose wills were materialized in various documents and folklores as well as art and architectural forms (pp. 13-14, 181-183). Such a thesis and reasoning procedure are clearly delineated in the introduction and conclusion of the book. Like other ritual architecture throughout China, Jinci is a collection of shrines and temples dedicated to a variety of deities. The most important ones and at the same time the most relevant to the thesis of the book are the Sage Mother Hall 聖母殿 and the Shu Yu of Tang Shrine Complex 唐叔虞祠, on which most of the chapters of this book focus. Chapter 2 discusses the ambiguous meaning of the name “Jinci 晉祠” and its potential for different interpretations on the identity of main deities. The author argues that the term “Jinci” allows the site to be interpreted as either dedicated to the rulers of Jin State or the Spirit of the Jin Springs. It also provides a general introduction of the present physical layout of the complex in the beginning section. Chapters 3 and 4 focus on the changing significance of Shu Yu across time and the impact that had on the shrine complex built for him. Chapter 3 also discusses the significance of the Taiyuan city, where Jinci is located, as a seat of local power, and suggests that this might be the reason why it was misunderstood as the place where the Jin State was originally founded. In chapter 4, based on historical documents from official dynastic histories to stele inscriptions, the author tries to delineate a picture of both an idealized Shu Yu shrine and the evolvement of the cult of Shu Yu as a state founder. Chapters 5 and 6 turn to the worship of the Spirit of the Jin Springs. Chapter 5 focuses on the textual study of the importance of the spring water to the local agrarian community and the purpose for building a temple at the site of the Jin Springs-to provide shelter for human encounters with the nature spirits that reside there. Chapter 6 offers the most in-depth stylistic analysis of the art and architecture of the Sage Mother Hall in this book, including a…
佛寺設計：空間•結構•場所 The Design of Chinese Monasteries: Space, Structure, and Place Online Symposium on Buddhist Architecture
Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Ten-story Stone Pagoda from Gyeongcheonsa Temple Site
Exhibition Name Ten-story Stone Pagoda of Gyeongcheonsa Temple Nationality/Period Goryeo Dynasty Provenance Gyeonggi-do Materials Stone Category religion – Buddhism – adoration – pagoda Dimensions H. 1,350.0cm Designation National Treasure 86 Accession Number Bongwan 6753 Location Path to History
Pagodas were first erected in East Asia after the arrival of Buddhism. Chinese Buddhists usually built brick pagodas, while those in Japan and Korea erected wooden and stone pagodas, respectively. Most Korean stone pagodas were made from granite, but this massive ten-story pagoda is the first one known to be made from marble. It once stood on the grounds of Gyeongcheonsa Temple, located at the foot of Mt. Buso in Gwangdeok-myeon, Gaepung-gun, Gyeonggi-do Province. This pagoda is also extraordinary in terms of its form, which is much more complex than most other pagodas. Its shape is very unusual, with a three-tier base, a complex polygonal shape for the lower part (from the first to the third tier), and a square upper part. The base and the main body are elaborately decorated with carvings of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and floral designs, and there is an inscription engraved on the body of the first story, stating that the pagoda was built in 1348 (4th year of Goryeo King Chungmok). The eaves of the roof stones reflect the influence of Goryeo wooden architecture, which would later also influence the Ten-story Stone Pagoda at the Wongaksa Temple Site (National Treasure No.2), built during the Joseon Dynasty. This pagoda was taken from its original site and smuggled to Japan in 1907 by Tanaka Mitsuaki, the Japanese Minister of Imperial Household Affairs. It was eventually recovered with the help of two Western journalists, Ernest T. Bethell from England and Homer Hulbert from America, who launched an international press campaign denouncing the theft. The pagoda was reconstructed at Gyeongbokgung Palace in 1960, where it remained until 1995, when it was dismantled to repair serious damage from weathering and acid rain. The exhaustive conservation treatment project took ten years, and in 2005 the restored pagoda was reconstructed at its current location, prominently displayed on the “Path to History” inside the National Museum of Korea.
Pagodas of Bulguksa Temple
Feb 17, 2014
Bulguksa Temple’s two most famous features are the Dabotap Pagoda, the Pagoda of Many Treasures or of Multiple Jewels, and the Seokgatap Pagoda, the Sakyamuni Buddha Pagoda. They stand within the central courtyard in front of the historic main hall, dedicated to the Sakyamuni, one of the Buddha’s titles. When the Royal Asiatic Society brings visitors on its annual Gyeongju Tour, these are the most impressive monuments that we see.
Pagodas evolved from the ancient Hindu and Buddhist stupa funerary-monuments of northern India as the new faith spread along the Silk Road into China almost two millennia ago, becoming wooden and brick towers. In Korea, this architectural tradition evolved into solid granite pagodas, usually about three to seven meters tall, with hollow spaces in one of their lower stories to contain holy relics such as sarira crystals or sutra scriptures.
More than 1,000 of these remain extant today, especially common in the southern regions of Korea. However, the Dabotap Pagoda and the SeokgatapPagoda tower over all the others as being the most excellent specimens for their complex ingenious architecture, profound philosophical depth and aesthetic charm. They are considered to be an inseparable and opposite-but-complimentary eum-yang pair, a yin-yang pair, standing together in view of the Buddha, offering all those who look upon them a lesson in monumental stone.
According to this view, the Dabotap Pagoda represents the eum characteristics of being female, dark, cold, of energy moving downward and inward, and of the transformation of heavenly principles into the myriad physical forms we enjoy on this earth. In contrast, the Seokgatap Pagoda represents the yang characteristics of being male, bright, hot, of energy moving upward and outward and of the spiritual aspirations of humankind.
Another classical way of looking at their polarities is to interpret the SeokgatapPagoda as the historical Buddha himself when he was teaching the Lotus Sutra, and the Dabotap Pagoda as his disciples listening to him. This is symbolized by the Dabo, or the Prabhutaratna Buddha-icon, which is said to manifest itself whenever and wherever the sutra is taught. The disciples are enlightened by the Buddha’s teachings and become beings who shine like precious jewels.
The Dabotap Pagoda or Many Treasures Pagoda is considered one of the most remarkable traditional structures in East Asia. Koreans are very proud of it and they depict it on their 10-won coin. Some 10.4 meters tall, this highly decorative pagoda’s fame comes from its extremely complex and delicate philosophically-based design. At the base are four sets of steps, which lead to four lion guards, symbolizing wisdom in Buddhism. Above the lions are a number of well-fitted granite blocks. The pillars stand on an elevated platform approached by four staircases, each with ten steps signifying the Ten Perfections or Virtues, the paramitas, of Buddhist thought.
This pagoda has had an unfortunate modern history. It was disassembled by the Japanese for repair in 1924 when Korea was under colonial rule. As this grand-scale project was underway, the lack of thorough protection resulted in its inner sarira caskets and three of the original stone lions being stolen, and they have never been recovered.
The Seokgatap Pagoda, or Sakyamuni Buddha Pagoda, stands 8.2 meters tall and is the finest example of a typical Korean Buddhist pagoda, being the cumulative apogee of all the earlier tradition and the prototype for many subsequent constructions. It is also called the Muyeongtap Pagoda, or Pagoda Without a Reflection, denoting the sad legend of the Baekje stonemason, Asadal, who built these pagodas. An old myth says that his wife, Asanyeo, traveled from afar to be with him because she missed him so much, but he was not allowed to see her until the work was finished due to ritual-taboo restrictions. She waited by a pond across the valley, waiting for the top of this pagoda to appear above the temple walls in the reflection on the water, but when no such reflection came after many months, she threw herself into the pond in despair. Unfortunately, the Seokgatap Pagoda has been under repair since early 2013, so you cannot see it these days, just as poor Asanyeo was not able to witness its beauty.
It is universally admired for its perfect proportions and its simple, graceful style. It has three main stories, like many of the pagodas from the Silla era, “three” being a sacred number in Buddhism and in many other spiritual traditions. In Buddhism, “three” symbolizes various triads, such as the Three Jewels of the Buddha himself, his Dharma teachings and the Sangha community of monks, or the corresponding division of Buddhist scriptures into sutras, sastras and vinaya, or the Cheon-Ji-In Trinity, the Heaven, Earth and Humanity Trinity, at the foundation of all Northeast Asian religious culture.
The Seokgatap Pagoda was first dismantled for repair in 1977. At that time, a collection of precious treasures was found inside, including a set of reliquary for sarira crystals and a paper scroll of the “True Words of Pure and Clean Light Scripture.” Scholars determined that this sutra was printed between 706 and 751, thus being the world’s oldest extant xylographic publication.
These Buddhist pagodas are a symbolic expression of doctrine. The ideological underpinnings of the Dabotap Pagoda and the Seokgatap Pagoda are said to be based on the centrally-important Lotus and Flower-Garland Sutras, scriptures emphasizing that sentient beings undergoing suffering in their lives on earth need to cultivate themselves both spiritually and physically to attain enlightened liberation. Their prominent location in the very center of Bulguksa Temple shows that 8th-century Koreans valued these Buddhist teachings very highly.
By David A. Mason A Professor of Korean Cultural Tourism at Nam-Seoul University
Discover Korea with the RAS [The Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch, founded in 1900, is an association of people, Koreans and non-Koreans alike, who wish to deepen their knowledge of Korean life, culture and history, and share that knowledge with others in English. http://www.raskb.com/ ]
The cultural heritage authorities of South Korea today officially unveiled the country’s oldest stone Buddhist pagoda following a record restoration effort that stretched over almost two decades—the longest is the country’s history. The Iksan Mireuksaji Stone Pagoda (익산 미륵사지 석탑) at the ancient Mireuksa temple complex in southern North Jeolla Province is the oldest extant stone pagoda in South Korea, constructed during the influential Baekje kingdom (18 BCE–660 CE).
Standing 14.5 meters high, 12.5 meters wide, and weighing some 1,830 tons, the restored pagoda, designated as National Treasure No.11 and standing in the west of the Mireuksa temple complex, now has only six tiers, but historians believe it originally had nine, matching Mireuksa’s 27.67-meter, nine-level eastern pagoda, which was completely reconstructed in 1993 in accordance with historical records. The pagoda is believed to have lost its upper levels sometime in the 16th century during the Kingdom of Great Joseon (1392–1897), which favored Confucianism over Buddhism.
The National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, which has led the lengthy project, noted that a full report would soon be published detailing the restoration process, which cost an estimated US$20.3 million, including the dismantling and reconstruction of the Buddhist monument.
“We made special efforts to secure the ingenuity and the structural stability of the stone tower of Mireuk Temple,” an institute official was quoted as saying. “We plan to publish a report outlining the result and the process of the restoration work by the end of this year.” (Yonhap News Agency)
Established during the Baekje kingdom and located in the modern city of Iksan, Mireuksa temple was founded late in the reign of King Mu (r. 600–641). The restored pagoda is one of only two Baekje pagodas that have survived to the present day. It was designated a national treasure in 1962 and was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage list in July 2015 as part of the Baekje Historic Areas World Heritage Site.
Mireuksa was the largest temple in the ancient kingdom of Baekje, which is notable for being instrumental in introducing and propagating Buddhism on the Korean Peninsula, and is now considered an example of the most advanced architectural skills of the Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla kingdoms, which co-existed on the peninsula. The temple is also renowned for its ancient four-meter stone flagpole supports, which date to the Later Silla (660–935).
An initial makeshift attempt to restore the stone pagoda was undertaken with concrete in 1915, during the Japanese occupation of Korea, after which the monument stood untouched until the National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage initiated the current restoration effort.
An inscribed gold plate was discovered during the restoration process, detailing the pagoda’s origin. From wikipedia.org
In 1999, the institute concluded that the pagoda was in serious need of repair, and the restoration project began in earnest in 2001, becoming Korea’s longest restoration initiative for a single cultural heritage item—the restoration team spent 10 of those years carefully dismantling the pagoda. According to reports, about 185 tons of concrete was removed and new locally sourced granite blocks were commissioned and added to the tower, making up about 35 per cent of the restored structure, which is now composed of 1,627 stone blocks.
In 2009, during the painstaking process to dismantle the pagoda, an engraved gold sheet was discovered shedding new light on the history of the pagoda. The inscription indicates that the monument was commissioned in 639 CE by the second wife of King Mu of Baekje (r. 600–641).
As of 2018, South Korea has 13 listed World Heritage sites,** many of which stand in testament to the country’s long and influential Buddhist heritage, including Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple in North Gyeongsang Province, the Baekje Historic Areas in South Chungcheong and North Jeolla, the Gyeongju Historic Areas in North Gyeongsang, and the mountain fortress city of Namhansanseong in Gyeonggi.
The tower before restoration. From wikipedia.org
According to data from the 2015 national census, the majority of South Korea’s population—56.1 per cent—holds no religious affiliation. Christians make up the largest religious segment of the population at 27.6 per cent, while Buddhists account for 15.5 per cent.
Kim Bongryol PhD, Professor of Architecture, Korea National University of Arts
A Buddhist Temple Is a Complex of Buildings
Buddhism was introduced to China from India and Central Asia, and it was already prevalent in China by the fourth century when the religion was first introduced to the Korean peninsula. At that time, the peninsula was divided into three separate kingdoms: Goguryeo 高句麗 (37 BCE–668 CE), Baekje 百濟 (18 BCE–660 CE), and Silla 新羅 (57 BCE–935 CE). Buddhism was welcomed by the royal houses of the Three Kingdoms, which pursued Buddhism competitively. The royal houses took the principal initiative for its spread, and Buddhism flourished in uniquely Korean forms, which came to characterize the architecture of Buddhist temples.
Following the introduction of Buddhism, the royal houses of the Three Kingdoms constructed huge temples in the heart of their capital cities. Goguryeo built Jeongneungsa 定陵寺 in Pyeongyang 平壤 to manage the royal tombs. Baekje constructed Mireuksa 彌勒寺 in Iksan 益山, a new city to which the capital of Baekje later moved. Silla constructed Hwangnyongsa 皇龍寺 in the heart of Gyeongju 慶州. The early seventh-century Mireuksa was built on a huge site on which three temples were placed in juxtaposition according to the Buddhist doctrine stating that Maitreya (Mireuk in Korean), the Future Buddha, would come to the world to save all living beings through three sermons. It is said that Mireuksa covered a land area of 165,000 square meters and was home to as many as three thousand monks. Hwangnyongsa was founded in 570 CE and covered an area of 80,000 square meters. A nine-story wooden pagoda was built at its center. This wooden pagoda rose 80 meters and had stairs inside that led to the top floor. It served as an observatory to view the city. Construction of temples by the royal houses drove the development of technology and improved the quality of Korean architecture overall, not to mention advancing Buddhist architecture.
According to Mahayana Buddhism, which is the mainstream of Korean Buddhism, the whole universe consists of three thousand worlds, which means near infinity, and one Buddha presides over each of these three thousand worlds. Buddhism has expanded from the belief in the one and only Buddha Shakyamuni to the belief in three thousand Buddhas. In particular, Mahayana doctrine emphasizes the “Path of the bodhisattva,” a key teaching of Mahayana ethics, which says “Seek enlightenment above, transform sentient beings below.” Countless bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, and Samantabhadra became popular and were venerated as second only to Buddha Shakyamuni. Also, in Central Asia and China, indigenous deities were added to the Buddhist pantheon, and these native gods became objects of worship in Korea as well. As a result, Central Asian Luminous Kings, the Daoist gods of the Big Dipper’s seven stars, and the Korean Mountain Spirit, not to mention many other Buddhist deities, all became objects of worship in Korea.
Buddhist temples in Korea necessarily included image halls for multiple Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other deities. According to the principle of “One World, One Buddha,” or the existence of one Buddha at a time, a single building should enshrine only one object of worship, requiring that a temple have various buildings for worship. During the Joseon 朝鮮 period (1392–1910), when Confucianism was espoused by the ruling class and the elite literati-bureaucrats severely suppressed Buddhism, the Buddhist community in an effort to ensure its own survival unified all beliefs in different Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The distinctions between Buddhist sects were removed, and buildings for a number of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other deities were built on the premises of one single temple.
Located in the southern part of the Korean peninsula, Tongdosa 通度寺 has sixteen buildings in total for worship: five separate buildings for five Buddhas including Shakyamuni, Amitabha, Bhaishajyaguru, Vairochana, and Maitreya; four buildings for bodhisattvas and arhats including Avalokiteshvara, Kshitigarbha, and the Arhats; and six building for other deities including Chilseong 七星 (the Daoist Gods of the Seven Stars of the Big Dipper), Dokseong 獨聖 (Hermit Sage), Sansin 山神 (Mountain Spirit), the Four Heavenly Kings, and more.
Korean Buddhism prohibited the marriage of monks and established an obligation to live an austere, celibate life. Although a Buddhist sect that permits the marriage of monks came into being in the twentieth century, celibate monks still dominate the Buddhist community in Korea and are considered morally superior among laypeople. Temples, therefore, are monasteries where monks who renounced the world reside, study, and meditate.
The basic rule at a temple is “one room, one monk.” For this reason, a temple needs as many rooms as the number of monks residing there in addition to facilities like a kitchen, dining hall, bathing area, and toilets. A number of buildings for common use are also required, including a lecture hall to study and discuss sutras, a prayer hall for all monks to chant together, and a hall to practice Seon 禪 (Ch. Chan, Jp. Zen) or meditation. It has been general practice in traditional Korean architecture to assign one function to each building. As the residences for monks, dining hall, lecture hall, prayer hall, and meditation hall were each separately constructed as independent buildings, the area for monks alone could include some ten buildings. Korean Buddhist architecture was bigger and more dignified than secular architecture. In fact, monasteries were in no way inferior to royal palaces in leading contemporaneous architecture. Numerous Buddhist temples were built during the Joseon period even in the face of the heavy political and economic suppression of Buddhism. The tradition of large scale, ornamented buildings, which was established in the early stage when Buddhism was first introduced to Korea, still continues today.
A temple is a unified premises consisting of a prayer section for laypeople and a monastic section for resident monks. According to Mahayana tradition, the prayer section requires a number of buildings for various objects of worship (Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other deities), and under the tradition of ascetic living, the monastic quarters need multiple buildings, some for eating and sleeping and others for practicing the faith. This is the reason Korean Buddhist temples consist of so many independent buildings. Accordingly, although it is important to make each building impressive, the relationship between buildings within a temple complex has even great significance. Architectural concerns such as the integration and separation of the prayer and monastic sections, the hierarchical distinctions between buildings dedicated to Buddhas and those for subordinate deities, and the association between the interior spaces within buildings and outside spaces between buildings are truly complex issues that are governed by the religious and sectarian tradition of each temple.
Buildings and Structural Elements
Contrary to the European tradition in which materials and building techniques clearly differed between religious and secular structures, Korean Buddhist architecture is not significantly different from that of administrative buildings or common residences. Ancient temples in Egypt and medieval churches in Europe are exquisite, imposing stone edifices, which contrast with ordinary residences made of wood. Korean Buddhist structures, on the other hand, were wooden buildings just like ordinary houses. Construction techniques that were developed for Buddhist architecture were also applied to secular buildings and the technological gap between the two remained narrow. Accordingly, in the Korean architectural tradition, the plan and construction of Buddhist architecture represent characteristics of Korean architecture in general.
The main parts of a building are the stone base, the timber column-and-beam skeleton, and the heavy pitched roof with overhanging eaves. Once a site is selected, the ground is rammed hard and the stone foundation is laid. This platform functions as the support for a row of columns and keeps the wooden structure from rotting due to infiltration of ground moisture into the wooden structure. The corners of the foundation are reinforced with stones, bricks, or tiles. Such stone bases with elaborate facings were generally used for Buddhist structures.
The wooden structure of Korean buildings is composed of framing with vertical columns and horizontal beams. The heavy weight of the roof is transmitted to the beams which in turn distribute the load to the columns and the ground. The columns are connected by lintels which together frame the walls. Spaces within the framework are filled with clay or wood to form a wall or are fitted with windows or doors to provide light and access. For windows and doors of Buddhist structures, a wooden frame decorated with carved floral patterns is covered with translucent Korean paper. Such windows and doors function as barriers that allows air to pass while reducing the effects of cold and heat from outside.
Brackets—supporting elements that are both functional and decorative—are placed on top of the column heads below the eaves. On the brackets are small columns that form a frame for the roof. Rafters of about ten centimeters in diameter are densely laid on the roof-frame to make a sloping roof. The roof is finished by laying tiles on its inclined surfaces. The roof tiles are a type of fired earthenware that make the entire building structurally stable by compressing the frame with their heavy weight while also protecting the building from rain and snow. Korean roof tiles come in convex and concave pairs. Concave tiles are shaped like a quarter cylinder and convex tiles are semicircular in profile. Concave tiles are laid first while convex tiles are placed across the joints between the concave tiles, affording perfect waterproofing for the roof. Specially manufactured roof tile ends are used along the edge of the eaves. Concave and convex roof tile ends are all attached with angled sides so that rainwater can be channeled away from the building. The angled sides of the roof tile ends are decorated. On Buddhist structures, decorative designs that symbolize Buddhism, such as the lotus and phoenix, were stamped on the angled sides. On the peak of the roof, large ornamental tiles called chimi 鴟尾 in Korean crowned the ends of the main roof ridge. This special type of roof tile resembles the tail of an imaginary fish or wings of a bird.
Korean wooden structures were extremely vulnerable to fire. Most were destroyed during war or by accidental fires. Although some buildings have been rebuilt, it is difficult to restore them to their original state. Once they catch fire, major structural components such as columns and beams burn quickly and the whole building collapses. Only the foundation and its stone or clay facing remain along with the roof tiles. Much of the original structure of many European buildings ruined in wars or by fire remain standing for extraordinarily long periods of time because they were made of stone, but the remains of ruined Korean structures are flattened, as can be witnessed at many historic sites. Most artifacts excavated from such ruins are roof tiles, which are fire-resistant. Roof tile ends decorated with exquisitely impressed designs have been discovered in large numbers and displayed in museums.
Unlike wooden buildings in Europe, Korean wooden buildings have long extended eaves in delicately curved lines, which are very impressive. These cantilevered eaves project out from the beams that support the rafters. A special system called gongpo 栱包 (wooden bracket system used to support the heavy tiled roofs at the ends of the eaves) was devised to make the eaves extend in a beautifully curved line. Placed between the heads of the columns and the roof frame, the gongpo disperses the weight to the beams and columns by transmitting the vertical load from the rafters. Elaborate multi-cluster wooden brackets on the heads of the columns create a single structure themselves, which is the most characteristic of all exterior components of Korean structures. Gongpo are also important ornamental components often bearing carved lotus and cloud designs.
At the center of the interior space, Buddhist images are enshrined on top of a wooden altar. This altar is also called the sumidan 須彌壇 as it symbolizes Mount Sumeru, which is regarded as the center of the Buddhist universe. On the ceiling directly above the sumidan hangs a separate house-shaped canopy called a datjip 닫집 in Korean, which serves as a roof for the Buddhist statues enshrined on the altar. The interior of the datjip is filled with sculptures in the shape of a dragon, phoenix, and clouds to represent Buddhist heaven. Buddhist architecture does not divide the interior of a building into compartments but treats it as a single space.
The walls and ceiling are adorned with painted images of Buddha, heavenly beings, and various symbolic motifs such as lotuses. This was meant by the Koreans to create a splendid and magnificent Buddhist paradise. The five basic colors used in Korean architecture are red, yellow, blue, black, and white. The coloring technique is systematic and follows a specific set of rules. In addition to serving as interior and exterior decoration, applied paint protects the wooden building against rotting.
Relationship between Image Halls and Pagodas
Cave temples and stupas are archetypes of early Buddhist architecture. Caves were natural places for monks who had entered the Buddhist priesthood to practice austerity, and stupas were places for lay devotees to pray. Originally, the stupa, which means “burial mound for enlightened beings” in Sanskrit, was a mound that enshrined relics of the Buddha Shakyamuni and was worshiped as the symbol of the Buddha. China received the tradition of the stupa in the form of the high-storied building from India through Central Asia. Chinese pagodas were mainly built with bricks, but in Korea stone was the preferred material for constructing pagodas. Although both wooden and brick pagodas were also constructed in Korea, most Korean pagodas were built from stone and represent an architectural type distinguishable from the Chinese brick pagodas and Japanese counterparts made of wood.
Cave temples were developed on the Deccan Plateau in India. The earliest examples were created by cutting into sandstone rock to create spaces for Buddhist monks to stay. As visits to monks by lay devotees increased over time, caves for worship were also created, promoting the development of cave temple complexes. In regions where Buddhism spread, constructing a cave temple was regarded as the greatest way of accumulating merit. It soon created an international boom for hollowing out cave temples. This architectural form developed in Ajanta and Nashik in India, spread through Bamiyan and Kizil in Central Asia, and traveled to China, where the cave temples of Dunhuang 敦煌 and Yungang 雲崗 were built. Korea, too, aspired to construct cave temples after Buddhism was first introduced to the peninsula. However, the major rock type which covers the land surface of Korea is granite, which is too hard to cut into. In India and China, cave temples were comparatively easy to construct because the bedrock was much softer limestone, sandstone, and mudstone. Seokguram Grotto 石窟庵, the representative example of Korean cave temples, constructed in the eighth century, is in fact a stone chamber artificially built with stone and covered with a dome.
Although many cave temples were built, most temples were free-standing complexes with proper monks’ quarters. Also, at the initial stage, worship of Buddhist images was not yet introduced, and the stupa was the sole object of devotion. Around the second century BCE, Buddhist statues in the form of human figures appeared in the Gandhara and Mathura regions of India, and such statues became established as objects of worship. It was only natural that Buddhist statues in realistic human form eventually replaced the abstract symbol of the stupa as the central object of worship. This led to the need for the construction of a new building to enshrine Buddhist statues. Because Buddhist sculptures are covered in very expensive gilding, the image hall came to be called the “golden hall.”
The image hall itself became an object of worship because of the Buddhist statues enshrined within. The pagoda standing outside the image hall continued to be an object for a different, more abstract worship. Accordingly, ancient temples comprised an image hall and pagoda together, and the architectural form of the Buddhist temple complex was determined entirely by the relationship between the image hall and the pagoda.
Each of the ancient kingdoms of Korea had its own architectural layout for temples. For example, the architectural type of Goguryeo was “one pagoda, three image halls,” with one pagoda surrounded by image halls on three sides. Baekje adopted the “one pagoda and one image hall” model in which a pagoda, image hall, and lecture hall were placed along a shared axis. In Silla, the “twin pagodas” type, in which two pagodas were located in front of the image hall, was preferred.
Around the tenth century, the Seon School (Kr. Seonjong 禪宗), or Meditation School, was introduced to the Korean peninsula. It was received with enthusiasm by the Korean Buddhist community and was established as the major sect of Korean Buddhism going forward. The Seon School rejected existing icons and freed itself from the existing architectural patterns. Stupa worship, or the “cult of relics,” began to weaken, and this naturally made the pagoda lose importance. Buddhist pagodas became smaller in size and were pushed to the periphery of temple compounds away from the center. Temples without pagodas that have only an image hall quickly became the mainstream model.
Diversity in Architectural Forms
Religious architecture in Europe focuses upon the building itself. That is, architecture is a shrine or a church. Buddhist architecture in Korea, on the other hand, is a set of buildings, where a building functions like a single room. For example, the Pantheon in Rome is a religious building and also a piece of religious architecture that enshrines gods. A Buddhist temple in Korea has as few as five and as many as sixty buildings and all these together are considered one architectural whole. The relationship between the buildings and their orientation to the natural topography are essential architectural characteristics. In other words, Korean architecture can be defined as a relationship between buildings and topography rather than as a building itself. This relationship can be considered as an architectural layout or plan. It has taken on diverse forms for a number of reasons, such as when the temple was founded, where the temple is situated, and the sect and religious lineage to which the temple belongs.
Temples founded in ancient times followed strict standards because they were built mostly in capital cities with state support. The “one pagoda, three image halls,” “one pagoda and one image hall,” and “twin pagodas” layouts mentioned earlier are representative architectural plans of ancient temples. These three types all share a common feature in that the perimeter was surrounded by long cloisters forming a border with neighboring sites, which was entirely appropriate for an urban setting. Cloisters composed of a line of buildings make sense due to the flat topographical conditions of a city, enabling temples to be built in standard form.
After the medieval period—particularly during the Joseon period when Buddhism was suppressed—Buddhist temples in the cities were demolished by force and disappeared. Only those deep in the mountains survived. Generous contributions from powerful elites were no longer provided and temples faced financial hardship. Accordingly, inefficient structures like long cloisters disappeared and instead freer architectural arrangements better suited to the irregular, mountainous topography developed. Although the buildings of new temples were generally smaller than those of the past, their number increased to accommodate the beliefs of various schools of Buddhism. The architecture of syncretic Buddhism was more suitable for sloping terrain. Breaking away from geometric layouts, a more organic plan came into being and became the established tradition of Buddhist architecture of Korea.
By the early ninth century, five important sects of Buddhism had been established in Korea. Afterward, Seon Buddhism was introduced in the late ninth and tenth centuries and nine core schools of Seon Buddhism emerged. During the Goryeo 高麗 period (918–1392), when Buddhism was the state religion, the religion reached its apex and some twenty sects flourished. In the thirteenth century, Lamaism, a form of Esoteric Buddhism, was introduced to Korea from Yuan 元 (1279–1368) China. Each of these sects had its own scriptures and teachings, its own main Buddha, and its own view of the universe. It was only natural that the architectural models, which symbolize spiritual principles, should differ among the various types of Buddhism.
For example, temples associated with the Pure Land School, which emphasized a belief in a Buddhist paradise (or Buddha land 佛國土), created an architectural form centered on the external space surrounded by buildings. The inner courtyard of the temple itself was regarded as a representation of the Western Paradise. Temples associated with the Dharma-Character School (Kr. Beopsang jong, Ch. Faxiang zong 法相宗), which promoted Buddhist precepts in religious practice, adopted a strict arrangement of gate-pagoda-stone lantern-image hall-Buddhist statues on a shared axis. Seon temples, on the other hand, were free from such specific constraints. Some were of unprecedented architectural layout with two pagodas placed both in front and behind the image hall. Some followed no architectural pattern at all.
Temples of the Doctrinal School (Kr. Gyojong 敎宗) took a different stance. While temples associated with the Doctrinal School regarded image and lecture halls as important locations for worship and for studying sutras, respectively, Seon emphasized mediation rooms and monks’ living quarters as spaces for religious practice and therefore constructed monastery buildings with spaces for such activities. As advocates for the Doctrinal School and Esoteric Buddhism tend to decorate temples magnificently, they emphasized color and decorative designs. Seon Buddhism, in contrast, regarded all decoration as nothing but emptiness, and emphasized extremely minimal ornament.
The Korean peninsula is small in size with a land area of only 220,000 square kilometers. Its topography is folded into many mountains and valleys, both large and small, making communications between regions difficult and thereby allowing folk cultures peculiar to each region to develop. In particular, the traditions of the Three Kingdoms that coexisted in the early centuries of the development of Buddhism persisted as cultural differences in later history. For example, many buildings in the region of the former Baekje kingdom, which has vast plains, sprawl horizontally, while many of those in the mountainous region of the former Silla kingdom are very vertical.
This discussion has shown that the diversity found in Korean Buddhist architecture developed through the ages, influenced by topography, religious schools, and regional traditions. Although relatively few Buddhist temples remain today, each extant example has unique architectural characteristics resulting from this complex matrix of factors.
* This essay is adapted from a text first published in English by Kim Bongryol in the exhibition catalogue The Smile of Buddha: 1600 Years of Buddhist Art in Korea (Brussels: Bozarbooks and Bai, 2008), 89–99. The publication of the current version has been coordinated by Lee Jae-jeong and Yang Sumi at the National Museum of Korea. It was edited by Keith Wilson and Sunwoo Hwang at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Asian Art. The copyright belongs to Bozarbooks and Bai, Brussels.
Astronomy and mathematics in ancient China: The Zhou bi suan jing
by
Christopher Cullen, Cambridge University Press 1996.
Traditional Chinese Architecture: Twelve Essays
Fu Xinian Edited by Nancy S. Steinhardt Translated by Alexandra Harrer Series: Princeton-China Series Copyright Date: 2017 Published by: Princeton University Press https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt21668kt Pages: 448
Octagonal buildings in ancient Korea were mostly constructed in the likeness of Buddhist pagodas that emerged during the Goguryeo era. The ancient Chinese books of Jiuzhang Suanshu and Yingzao Fashi confirm that, in constructing Fogongsi’s Yingxian Wooden Pagoda, the ancients could not design a full-form regular octagonal plan in the pre-seventeenth century before the introduction of Western mathematics. Eight-cornered monuments in Japan and Korea faced the same challenge. Thus, this study examines the acceptance and limitations of adapting octagonal drawing methods in Korean architecture from Chinese and Western mathematics. It conducts comparative studies of architectural and mathematical history in pre-modern and modern times. It reveals that field carpenters applied Yingzao Fashi’s formula in constructing an octagon via a square’s diagonal ratio. Further, the Western method of constructing regular octagons was introduced to the Korean Peninsula in the eighteenth century but was not utilized at work sites. Ultimately, the concepts in mathematics texts had a certain influence on the formative beauty of wooden constructions.
Notes
1 In East Asia, there is a belief that the Sinhalese “dagoba” gradually became “pagoda,” though this derivation is subject to debate. Liang Sicheng contends that the term originates from the “ba jiao ta” 八角塔 (eight-cornered tower) because “ba jiao ta” might have been read as “pa go da” during the Tang Dynasty. The term “pagoda” became the accepted name for such monuments in European languages. In the southern region of China, in particular, the pronunciation of “ba jiao ta” was “pa-chiao-t’a” or “pa-go-ta” (Liang Citation1984). However, Liang was unaware that many eight-cornered towers or pagodas already existed in ritual shrines and have since been excavated in the Jilin Hwando 丸都 (Wandu, ch.) Mountain Fortresses, Gyeongju Najeong Well 蘿井, and Mingtang 明堂 (luminous hall) of Empress Wu from the Goguryeo and Silla period. Alternatively, the Dravidian term pagoda/pagavadi was derived from the Sanskrit bhagavadi (goddess, especially in reference to Kali) or the Persian butkada (temple) (Kim Citation2011, 116).
2 Under Japanese rule, Yoneda Miyoji analyzed the octagonal schematics of the Seokguram Grotto constructed in the eighth century and the ground plans of Goguryeo octagonal wooden pagodas from the fifth century. He also began examining Goguryeo’s octagonal building sites and noticed eight additional octagonal buildings for other purposes.
3 The mathematical books include Jiuzhang Suanshu Lizhu, annotated by Guo Shuchun, and Zhoubi Suanjing Lizhu, annotated by Chen Zhenyi and Wen Renjun.
4 The mathematical treatise comprises 13 books attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid.
5 Given Euclidean principles, it is impossible to draw a regular full-formed octagon with a non-scaled ruler and a compass.
6 In addition to the wooden construction, China also has a budo (small stone grave for housing the sarira or relics of a senior monk), a pagoda, and a building made of painted stone, judged to be of an early period. For example, regarding eight-sided votive pagodas in the northern Liang period (397–439) or the Dunhuang Grotto, there are eight-angled buildings with a polygonal plan within the Amitabha’s Paradise tableau (Amituo) in the north wall in Mogao Cave 107 and above a preaching scene of the Utmost-Superior-Dharani-of-the Buddha-Topknot’s tableau (Fuding Zunsheng Tuoluoni) centered on the south wall in Mogao Cave 217.
7 It is known that Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), along with Xu Guangqi (1562 ~ 1633) published the Jihe yuanben幾何原本 (Elements of Geometry 1607) by translating Euclid’s Elements, a mathematical treatise consisting of thirteenth books attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid.
8 The construction of the Foxiangge Pavilion, inspired by the Huanghelou 黃鶴樓 (Yellow Crane Tower) under Qianlong (r.1735–1796), is located at the center of the front hill of Wanshoushan 萬壽山 (Longevity Mountain). It was rebuilt by Cixi 慈禧太后 (1835–1908) in 1891 after it was destroyed by Anglo–French allied forces during the Second Opium War in 1860. It was reconstructed again by Cixi in 1903 after it was devastated a second time by European forces during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 (Steinhardt Citation2019, 305–306). In 1987, a building survey of the Foxiangge Pavilion found that most of the wooden structures were seriously damaged, including missing decorative parts and roof tiles on the first floor. The brick joints also appeared to have wide cracks. In July 1988, large-scale repair work started after the Summer Palace Management Office 頤和園管理處reported a comprehensive repair plan approved by the Municipal Garden Bureau 市園林局, which was finished on September 13, 1989. (http://www.bjmacp.gov.cn/cn/spec/pastdiscovered/viewinfo.aspx?tabid=300907&iid=90&categoryid=100007, accessed on January 10, 2021)
9 A recent study arithmetically proves that the octagonal drawing method of the Yingzao Fashi applies the ratio of 5:12.07:13.07; thus, it is not considered a perfect regular octagon (Zhang, Yang, and Xiao Citation2018, 98). Even in the case of the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda, the calculations of the measured drawings show that it does not have an equilateral octagonal plan (Chen Citation1981, 72–80).
10 In addition to Yumedomo Hall, the Octagonal Hall at Eizan-ji Temple 栄山寺 八角堂 (763–764) has a length of 10.78 chi (3266 mm, 1 chi = 30.3 cm) on one side of each octagon and is defined as a building with an equilateral octagonal plan because all sides have the same length.
11 The archaeological remains at Toseongri and Sangori Villages (fifth century) have no cornerstones or internal rows in the foundation. These octagonal shapes are more inaccurate than other building sites because most cornerstones are lost; however, a few remain. Such anonymous sites were excluded from this study [Figure 13 and Figure 14].
12 Yoneda analyzed the octagonal building site in Cheongamri Village and identified two ways of making an octagonal plan. These methods were derived from the ceiling structure of Goguryeo burial mounds. The first method was to initiate a gradual reduction by rounding off the edges forming one half of a square. The second was to divide one side into three parts in a square, reducing it to eight angles. Thus, Yoneda considered the construction of an octagonal building on the temple site from a square-based octagon and, consequently, considered the main building at the Cheongamri site as based on a regular square-based octagonal plan. It is very reasonable to draw the octagon by making two points on one side of a square. However, considering the inscribed circle of the square, the length of the two sides of the isosceles triangle at each corner, excluding the diagonal, is too large to produce a regular octagon [Figure 12].
13 Assumedly, it has an octagonal plan on a platform; only the foundation remains are visible on the inner platform, while the rows of cornerstones are invisible. Further, the inner (outer) angle of the octagonal surface on the outermost rain gutter side is 135° (45°).
14 Chinese reports and recent research papers define octagonal buildings as square octagonal plans.
15 Although no column bases remain on the building site, the foundation remains, and the traces of platform siding have been maintained in relatively good condition.
16 In the actual measurement report, it was not described as an octagon since there are no cornerstones; only the approximate distance between the columns was described.
17 This temple site was named Heungnyunsa Temple when the Japanese surveyed the Silla era temples in Gyeongju in the 1910s. In 1976, however, tiles with the characters “xxx廟之寺” pressed into them were found there, and questions about the location of Heungnyunsa and Yeongmyosa were raised as soon as roof tiles with the name of Yeongmyosa engraved on them were found. Consequently, the name of the temple site was restored to Yeongmyosa Monastery 靈廟寺, not Heungnyunsa, which was built when Silla was under the reign of Queen Seondeok (r. 632–647). The Yeongmyosa Monastery site was investigated in test excavations in 1972 and 1977 and between 1978 and 1981, following the conclusion of the tests. Heungnyunsa 興輪寺 was the first Buddhist monastery ever established in Silla.
18 The first construction layout consisted of one pagoda and two halls arranged to the north and south of the pagoda respectively. In time, the temple fell into ruin and was then wholly reconstructed during the Unified Silla period (668–935 CE).
19 As per the Precision Measurement Survey Report on the Hwangudan, there are various dimensions between each column; however, an equilateral octagonal plan is considered by default.
20 Kim states that the method of dividing a regular quadrilateral in the octagonal drawing method is currently used by carpenters in the field. The same method is used when constructing a round purlin. In his writings, the term “regular octagon” is not used.
21 Regarding Korea, the Jiuzhang Suanshu and Zhoubi suanjing were recorded in Samguk Sagi 三國史記 (History of the Three Kingdoms) during the Unified Silla period in the middle of the seventh century. However, given the previous system, laws and ordinances, and astronomical systems, they may have been transmitted to the Baekje and Goguryeo dynasties in the fourth to fifth centuries. Moreover, in Japan, an arithmetic system similar to that in China was recorded in the Nihon Shoji in the sixth century.
22 They refer to the classical mathematical books from the Chinese Han Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty as the official mathematical texts for imperial examinations in mathematics, as follows: Zhoubi suanjing (Zhou Shadow Mathematical Classic), Jiuzhang Suanshu 九章算術 (The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art), Haidao Suanjing 海島算經 (The Sea Island Mathematical Classic), Sunzi suanjing 孙子算經 (The Mathematical Classic of Sun Zi), Zhang Qiujian suanjing 張邱建算經 (The Mathematical Classic of Zhang Qiujian), Wucao suanjing 五曹算經 (Computational Canon of the Five Administrative Sections), Xiahou Yang suanjing 夏侯陽算經 (The Mathematical Classic of Yang Xiahou), Wujing suanshu 五經筭術 (Computational Prescriptions of the Five Classics), Jigu suanjing 緝古筭經 (Continuation of Ancient Mathematical Classic of Wang Xiaotong), and Zhui shu 綴述 (Method of Interpolation of Zu Chongzhi)
23 Xu likewise proved in Celiang yitong 測量異同 (Similarities and Differences in Measurement 1608) and Gougu yi 句股義 (Principle of Base and Altitude 1609) that Chinese gougu surveying bore theoretical, methodological, and instrumental similarities and differences with Western geometric-square surveying (Hashimoto and Jami Citation2001, 268).
24 Many studies have shown that the contents of the Jihe yuangben stem from lecture notes written by the French Jesuits Jean-François Gerbillon (1654–1707) and Joachim Bouvet (1656–1730). They do not refer to the fact that the first Chinese version of Euclid’s Elements bore the same Chinese title, the Jihe yuangben (1607). It was translated by Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) and Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 (1562–1633) (Ju et al. Citation2016, 111).
25 The Shuli jingyun describes the six-sided figure inscribed in a circle, the four-sided inscribed in a circle, the six-sided circumscribed in a circle, and the four-sided circumscribed in a circle.
26 There is evidence of proportional compasses provided by Fabrizio Mordente (1532–1608) and Thomas Hood (d. 1598) even earlier than Galileo, but these geometric instruments had functional operations inferior to the Galilean compass. (Pisano and Bussotti Citation2015, 213)
27 Fang met Adam Schall von Bell in 1659 in Beijing and satisfied his great desire of studying Western mathematics under the Polish Jesuit Johannes Nickolaus Smogulecki (1610–1656).
28 Korean scholars referred to the Xiyang xinfa lishu 西洋新法曆書 (Treatise on Calendrical Science 1645), later re-edited with the title, the Xinfa suanshu 新法算書 (New Methods in Mathematics 1666), and the Tianxue chuhan 天學初函 (First Collection of Writings on Heavenly Learning, 1626) (Jun Citation2006, 482–483).
29 Although Korean mathematics borrows from ancient China, it did not change with Chinese mathematics trend since the seventeenth century. Paradoxically, Korean mathematics developed, while Chinese mathematics declined during King Sejong’s regime (r. 1418–50).
30 According to the introductory (Qujingwei) section of the Yingzao Fashi by Li Jie (?–1110), the preliminary mathematical explanations end with an explicit quotation from Li Chunfeng’s commentary on the Jiuzhang suanjing “營造法式,取經圍: 九章算術及約斜長等密率修立下條. 諸徑圍斜長依下頂.”
31 Mathematical ideas in Korea mirror the basic ideas of ancient China, and it is necessary to refer to the systematic arithmetical ideas in the Lulizhi of Hanshu 漢書 to precisely ascertain them. Lulizhi 律歷志 (Treatise on Harmonics and Calendrics) says “The counting of numbers fits well with all things in the universe 萬物氣體之數, 天下之能事畢矣.” In this case, the basic propositions integrate the tune音律, the astronomical calendar 曆法, the art of divination 易數, and the weights and measures 度量衡. That is, the basic scales and mathematical systems of ancient architecture are indirectly included in this scope.
32 The Korean Mathematical History explains geometrical constructions in art crafts and architecture and the Yin-Yang and Five Element thought in the architectural plan, metrological system, and scale, revealing a close rapport with the logic of mathematics.
Application of and Changes in Construction Principles and Joint Methods in the Wooden Architecture of the Joseon Era: A Case Study on the Sungnyemun Gate in Seoul.
Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery.
Wang, N. 2017a. “Xiangtianfade, Guijufangyuan [The Principle of Modelling Heaven and Earth, the Rules of Square and circle],” Jianzhushi [Architectural History]. Vol. 2. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 77–125. Google Scholar
Wang, N. 2017b. “Guijufangyuan Futuwanqian [Circles, Squares, and the Place Where Buddha lives],” Zhongguo jianzhushi lunhuikan [Journal of Chinese Architecture History]. 2, Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 216–256. Google Scholar
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The Shingon sect of Buddhism follows the doctrine of esoteric Shingon teachings compiled by Kobo Daishi (Kukai) in the Heian period. “Shingon” refers to the truth revealed by Buddhism. These teachings tell us that words and existence are inseparable, and that the true essence of Buddhism cannot be explained in human language. Instead, the words used in scripture embody the deep meaning and teachings found in phenomena around the world; they are signposts to true reality of all things. Kobo Daishi tells us that it is these esoteric teachings that are truth, and that esoteric Buddhism is the path to understanding them. By contrast, exoteric teachings are concerned with discerning meaning from the surface of things in the world. Exoteric teachings include the Mahayana teachings found in Hosso, Sanron, and Shomon and Engaku practices.
A few differences can be pointed out between esoteric “Mikkyou” Buddhism and exoteric “Kengyo,” but the very basic distinction is the method of practicing the knowledge of the meaning of a hidden secret. In Shingon, the Sanmitsukaji (Three secret healings) and the Sanmitsuyuga (three secret yuga) are spoken of, but it means the practice of meditation to focus on one point of the spirit (Sanmaji). As for its characteristics, the secret workings of the Buddha, body, mouth and thoughts and the workings of the Buddha, body, mouth, and thoughts of the devotee inspire each other reciprocally, and the distinction between the Buddha and the devotee disappears and the follower makes living peaceably essential. Kobo Daishi calls this way of things the “Nyuga Ganyu,” meaning that “the Buddha enters me and I enter the Buddha.” Kobo Daishi expressed that with Mikkyou Buddhism, enlightenment can be better realized, as compared to Kengyo, and says that there exist these incantations, Nyuga Ganyu, and practice (meditation). But then, from the late Heian period until the Kamakura period, the new kind of Buddhism entering the stage took influence from Shingon sect education and prayer, introduced the Mikkyou essence and value in one part, and as a rule, has meditation, for which it can not be said is lacking in Kengyo Buddhism. If another difference between the faiths can be brought up, it is the appreciation of the Buddha and bodhisattva.The Buddha and bodhisattva in Kengyou is a “person” who found enlightenment, and a “person” searching for enlightenment, but the Buddha and bodhisattva in Mikkyou are the truth of the universe themselves (dharma). The ones grasping this ”dharma” as a physical image are the Buddha and the bodhisattva. For that reason, the Buddha and bodhisattva in Mikkyou are called the “Hosshinbutsu (dharmic body).”
Kobo Daishi expresses that this Hosshinbutsu, or truth of the universe, being taught directly to us as an insight of truth is called the “Hosshin Seppo.” This space-time listening to the wisdom of this teaching will be the circumstance of the three mysteries incantation (Nyuga Ganyu). By that meaning, in the Shingon sect, the Buddha and the universe are a gift to the people, and also, is a basis for a prayer as a condition for the mysterious ability of the people to react, and according to that, understanding the insight of the Buddha, naturally accumulating pious acts, helping the people, and making them happy are regarded as the most important, so it can be said that it is a practical Buddhist sect.
SHINGON BUDDHISM is a religion that was established by Kôbô Daishi (Kûkai) at the beginning of the Heian period (9th century), and its teachings are known as Shingon Esoteric Buddhism (Shingon Buddhism).
This form of Buddhism is also known in Japanese as mikkyô, meaning “secret teaching”. Mikkyô is one of several streams of practice within the Mahâyana Buddhist tradition. Mikkyô blends many doctrines, philosophies, deities, religious rituals, and meditation techniques from a wide variety of sources. Assimilation of Hindu and local deities and rituals was especially marked in the Buddhism that became Mikkyô. Such diverse elements came together over time and, combining with Mahâyåna philosophical teachings, formed a comprehensive Buddhist system of doctrine and practice.
The teachings of Shingon are based on the Mahâvairocana Sutra (J: Dainichi-kyô) and the Vajrasekhara sutra (J: Kongôchô-kyô) , the fundamental sutras of Shingon. These sutras were probably written during the last half of the seventh century in India. They contain the first systematic presentation of Mikkyô doctrine and practice.
Shingon represents the middle period of esoteric Buddhist development in India. This, extending from the seventh into the eighth century, was the time when the Mahâvairocana Sutra and Vajra Sekhara Sutra were compiled. Esoteric Buddhist history was practiced from India to Central Asia, Ceylon, China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia, Nepal, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, and Tibet. The Mikkyô tradition continues in Japan today, but in other lands where the Indian source tradition developed in varying ways, the esoteric Buddhist teachings have mostly declined, some to the point of extinction.
Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan
Source: Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan
Source: Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan
Source: Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan
Source: Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan
Source: Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan
Source: Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Source: Chinese Esoteric Buddhism/ Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition
Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
Source: Kukai’s Shingon Philosophy: Embodiment
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A Brilliant Exploration of Kukai and the Pan-Asian Travels of Esoteric Buddhism at Nara National Museum: KUKAI: The Worlds of Mandalas and the Transcultural Origins of Esoteric Buddhism
Kukai, 9th century founder of esoteric Shingon Buddhism (Shingon Mikkyo) in Japan, was a peripatetic and socially heroic figure who roved far and wide assisting with infrastructure projects, excelling in the divining of water, and sculpting and painting icons… Or so the mythology that surrounds him would have us believe. He may not have accomplished all the social and artistic projects that are attributed to him, though the attributions are testament to the effect he had on Japan’s historical imagination, but he did indeed travel, as did the type of Buddhism he adopted and introduced to Japan, and the Kukai exhibition at Nara National Museum does a wonderful job of producing a map of Mikkyo, tracing the complex journey of esoteric Buddhism from India to Japan, and then some of its trajectory throughout various regions of Japan under the custodianship of Kukai. Kukai’s life involved monastic training in Xi’an, China, residency at Takaosanji temple and tenure at Toji temple (both in Kyoto) and life at mountain-based Koyasan in Wakayama where he founded his own community. The exhibition traces the stages of his career within the broader Asian context. One place represented where he did not play a role is Indonesia, but the revelation provided by a large number of astonishing artefacts excavated from a site there – and never before displayed in Japan – suggests an impersonal yet significant link.
One magnificent piece (of the many historically important, visually striking, and physically huge works on display) is the twelfth century “Blood Mandala”, the earliest extant polychrome copy of the mandala Kukai brought back from T’ang China with him to Japan in the 9th century. Mandalas, the information panel explains, “convey how the worlds of the universe are conceived within the esoteric Buddhist tradition”. These mysterious diagrammatic paintings are used in complex visualizations by initiated practitioners as a means of accomplishing a state called “Buddhahood [or enlightenment] in this very Body” which is why, while the paintings are crammed with information, they present prescribed iconography and can be decoded. The esoteric psycho-physical cosmos is understood as having a “Diamond” aspect and a “Womb” aspect, which make up a non-dual whole.
On the other hand, there are some striking decorative elements, which demonstrate how these diagrams – which are made and used throughout the Buddhist world – exhibit cultural tastes, such as the delicate, brightly coloured blossoms flowering in the outermost margins. And this reminds us too that these are works of art as much as they are ritual implements. Before each mandala is set an altar equipped with implements for the rituals for each mandala, and nearby is a late 9th century statue of a seated blue-haired and gold skinned Dainichi Nyorai, the principal deity in Japan’s esoteric Buddhism who appears in prime places in both mandalas. Keeping as close to Kukai’s time as possible, a set of Five Wisdom Buddhas (also from the 9th century) represent a key section of the mandalas. All of this together creates a display of the key pieces of esoteric Buddhist ritual: icons, instructive diagrams, and altar. The only element missing is Kukai the ritualist, but his presence is felt throughout the show, and not only as practitioner but as intellect, writer, traveler, community-builder, and religious leader as well.
This leads us into another of the major exhibits: the East Javanese Nganjuk mandala of the 10th century which was made up of numerous small bronze figures of buddhas and bodhisattvas excavated in the early 20th century. These are arranged inside a circular room with walls marked with the stars, presumably to press home the point that what we are dealing with is an esoteric cosmos. The identities and arrangement of the icons that make up this unusual 3D mandala show that the esoteric practices in Java were essentially the same as those brought to Japan by Kukai (there are varieties of esoteric Buddhism). There are also some striking differences. The Javanese icons all display Hindu characteristics, a reminder that esoteric Buddhism developed from Indian traditions, which contrast with the icons that Japan created. Drawing heavily on Indian prototypes, the headdresses, facial features, and the curvaceous female deities distinguish the entire set from its Japanese counterparts.
Of the many notable artefacts, works of painted and sculpted art, and ritual tools on display, the magnificent Takao Mandala is also a must-see. Kukai was based at Takaosanji temple (after which the mandalas are named) in Kyoto for a short period. This is another piece from the 9th century, and it is being exhibited for the first time since its six-year long conservation. This beautiful, delicate (and gigantic) pair of mandalas are painted with thin gold line on black backgrounds – simple yet stunning.
A highly recommended show, excellently curated, and overflowing with masterpieces that include works rarely seen in Japan.
Admission: Adults 2000 yen, University and High School Students 1500 yen, Junior High School Students and Under: free
Nara National Museum. Location here. 50 Noboriojicho, Nara, 630-8212
Directions: Take Exit 2 from Kintetsu-Nara Station on the Kintetsu line and walk 15 minutes or from the East Exit of Nara Station on the JR Kansai Main line, take the Nara Kotsu bus and alight at Himurojinja-Kokuritsuhakubutsukan bus stop.
A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism
Wiley-Blackwell Guides to Buddhism Authors William E. Deal, Brian Ruppert Edition illustrated, reprint Publisher John Wiley & Sons, 2015 ISBN 1405167017, 9781405167017 Length 320 pages
The Mountain as Mandala: Kūkai’s Founding of Mt. Kōya
Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 47(1) December 2020 47(1) DOI:10.18874/jjrs.47.1.2020.43-83 Authors: Ethan Bushelle Western Washington University
Shingon Buddhism originated in ancient Indian Tantric thought and developed as a distinctive form of Buddhism before arriving in Japan in the early 9th century CE. The religion moved across countries, from India through the Silk Road countries into China and finally into Japan, before it took shape as a distinctively Japanese form of esoteric Buddhism. In order to understand this branch of Buddhism it is important to study its path from India to China, and then finally to Japan. Along every stop on its path the religion adapted to the culture around it, constantly changing until arriving in Japan. Although extensive documents and archaeological evidence from this journey no longer exist, there are a few highlights along the Silk Road that shed light on esoteric Buddhism’s path. Specifically in India and China Buddhism went though severe religious persecution causing relics and temples to be destroyed. However many cave temples in China have been spared, although they have endured some damage. Another important factor affecting the preservation of evidence concerns the secret nature of esoteric Buddhism. Because Shingon and other esoteric sects were always restricted to those who were initiated into the sects, Shingon was able to fossilize the religion in secret chambers, some of which are being discovered today.
Icons and Iconoclasm in Japanese Buddhism: Kukai and Dogen on the Art of Enlightenment
Author Pamela Winfield Edition illustrated Publisher OUP USA, 2013 ISBN 0199945551, 9780199945559 Length 207 pages
Kukai and the beginnings of Shingon Buddhism in Japan
Jingo-ji Temple, a famous autumn foliage spot in northern Kyoto, traces its origins to Takaoyama Temple, established by Wake no Kiyomaro. When Kukai returned from Tang China, he made Jingo-ji his base of operations, making it a starting point for Shingon Esoteric Buddhism. This exhibition commemorates the 1200th anniversary of Jingo-ji becoming an official esoteric Buddhist temple in 824 and the 1250th anniversary of Kukai’s birth. It features treasures associated with Kukai, such as the National Treasure “Standing Yakushi Nyorai,” a masterpiece of early Heian period sculpture, and the National Treasure “Ryokai Mandala (Takao Mandala),” which has been restored for the first time in approximately 230 years. Additionally, other precious cultural properties inherited by Jingo-ji will be on display.
Hardcover – Illustrated, May 31, 2006 by Rolf W. Giebel (Translator), Dale A. Todaro (Translator)
The Matrix and Diamond World Mandalas in Shingon Buddhism (2 Vol)
Author(s): Adrian Snodgrass ISBN: 8185179271 Year of Publication: 1998 Bibliographic Information: xli + 881p. 382 illus. Format: Hardcover Series Information: Satapitaka Series No. 354-55 Language: English
From the early 9th century a new orientation emerged in Japanese Buddhism that emphasized specific Tantric, or Vajrayāna characteristics of both doctrine and practice. While elements of the Vajrayāna (vehicle of the diamond/thunderbolt) Buddhist traditions of mature Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism were present in Japan in the 8th century, it was only in the new Buddhist schools of Tendai and Shingon that related practices recently imported from China were specifically identified as “esoteric” in nature and as different from the other schools of Buddhism that were newly designated as “exoteric” by these schools. The first to promote this distinction was the monk Kūkai, founder of the Shingon school. His contemporary Saichō, who founded the Tendai school, placed himself and several of his disciples under Kūkai’s tutelage to learn what the latter had brought back from an intensive study period in China. Yet Saichō’s approach was to place the esoteric teachings and practices on a par with his Tendai teachings, derived primarily from the Chinese Tiantai school. His difference from Kūkai on this matter drove both an eventual end to their cooperative relationship and, after Saichō’s death, innovations by Tendai school exegetes that aimed to reconcile the differences. The combined force of Tendai esotericism (Taimitsu) and Shingon esotericism (Tōmitsu) impacted greatly the development of subsequent centuries of Japanese Buddhism. The three major schools of Buddhism that dominated during the Nara period (710–794)—Sanron, Hossō, and Kegon—all incorporated esoteric elements into their practice during the Heian period (794–1185). By the time of the Kamakura period (1185–1333), when the new forms of Zen, pure land, and Nichiren Buddhism emerged, the esoteric paradigm was so ingrained in Japanese Buddhist thought that even though esoteric practice was at times explicitly criticized by the new schools, much of its worldview was implicitly affirmed.
Central to Japanese esoteric Buddhism is the understanding that through engaging in the ritual practices of reciting mantra, practicing symbolic hand gestures known as mudra, and imagining one’s self and all beings as being intrinsically awakened (one meaning of the term mandala), one can achieve the enlightened stage of buddhahood within one lifetime. These three are called the “practices of the three mysteries” (sanmitsu gyō三密業), through which a practitioner is able to unite with the enlightened energy of the cosmic buddha’s body, speech, and mind. More than anything else, it was this cosmological framework that influenced the development of many later Buddhist practices. Fundamental to this model was the affirmation that every living being is intrinsically endowed with the latent qualities of buddhahood. This concept of “original enlightenment” (hongaku本覚) framed an immanental, holistic vision that recognized the real presence of nirvāṇa (freedom, liberation) in the midst of one’s experience of saṃsāra (the cyclic world of ignorant suffering). The unfolding of various doctrinal and ritual means of articulating and verifying a practitioner’s intrinsic state of enlightenment spurred novel theological systems, artistic creativity of many forms, as well as sociopolitical opportunities for aristocrats who sought to invoke the buddha’s power for various mundane needs. Tendai and Shingon monks alike contributed to this growth in a myriad of ways.
ronze statues of Kukai, left, and Huiguo are shown at the Qinglong Temple in Xian, China, where Japanese monk Kukai learned the teachings of esoteric Buddhism from Chinese Master Huiguo more than 1,200 years ago.
Ayoung Buddhist monk crossed the sea to China as a member of a Japanese mission sent there during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). That monk was Kukai (774-835), also known posthumously as Kobo-Daishi.
In China, he studied esoteric Buddhism, which had been brought from India, and later brought the teachings back to Japan and founded the Shingon School of Buddhism.
His name has been passed down from generation to generation in Xian, the capital of Shaanxi Province, then the Tang capital of Changan, and garners respect among local people even today.
Surrounded by walls built during the Ming Dynasty, the streets of Xian are laid out as a grid. The streets of Kyoto, an ancient capital of Japan, were modeled after those of Xian. While the city is now lined with four-star hotels and designer boutiques, many old temples and pagodas still remain here and there, recalling bygone days.
On a hill southeast of the city”s south gate is Qinglong Temple, Kukai received the ultimate teachings of esoteric Buddhism under Master Huiguo (746-805). At Huiguo-Kukai Memorial Hall, the temple”s main hall, wooden statues of Kukai and Huiguo are now worshiped.
“The sight of Huiguo, a Chinese master, and Kukai, a Japanese master, side by side is an eternal symbol of friendship between China and Japan,” Kuan Xu, the temple”s 43-year-old head priest, said quietly.
Near the hall stands the Kukai Monument. It was built by four prefectures in Shikoku, including Kagawa, where Kukai was born, and the city government of Xian. Four decorative stones at the monument”s four corners symbolize the four prefectures.
The temple was once packed with Japanese tourists, but due to soured relations between the two countries, the number of visitors has declined markedly.
“I chatted with Japanese visitors on a few occasions here … Master Kukai would feel sorry about the current state of bilateral relations,” said a 77-year-old woman who was sitting on a bench near the monument.
A gateway to the Silk Road and the center of esoteric Buddhism, Changan was one of the world”s most prosperous cities during the Tang Dynasty.
Kukai came across esoteric teachings while studying Buddhism in Japan and joined the official mission overseas, hoping to plumb their depths in Changan.
Upon his arrival in Changan in 804, Kukai took up the study of Sanskrit to read the sacred texts. Later he went to see Huiguo at the Qinglong Temple, then considered to be the headquarters of esoteric Buddhism in China.
Huiguo had probably been informed that Kukai was a man of great ability as well as a genius at calligraphy and languages. When Kukai visited him and was given an audience, Huiguo said with delight: “Since learning of your arrival, I”ve been waiting anxiously. How excellent it is that we now meet at last!”
Huiguo reportedly bestowed upon Kukai all the esoteric teachings.
Esoteric Buddhism, after experiencing a golden age, gradually fell into decline due to Tang Dynasty policies that oppressed Buddhism while patronizing Taoism, and the outbreak of war at the end of the dynasty.
Qinglong Temple was allegedly destroyed, like other ancient temples there, in the 11th century. The temple in its present form, including the monument and the memorial hall, was reconstructed in the 1980s with the cooperation and financial support of the Shingon School of esoteric Buddhism in Japan and community organizations from Shikoku.
At the memorial hall, a 49-year-old local man was ardently saying a prayer. When I told him that I was from Japan, he said with a smile: “So, you”re from the fatherland of Master Kukai! I hope to visit Mt. Koya someday.”
More than 1,200 years ago, a young Kukai built a bridge between Japan and China. Countless years have passed, and though there have been times when the winds of adversity have blown, there are still some who would cross that bridge even today.
Visible Mantra: Visualising & Writing Buddhist Mantras
The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan
By
Matthew Don McMullen
A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements of Doctor of Philosophy in Buddhist Studies in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley
THE FIVE GREAT SPACE REPOSITORY BODHISATTVAS: LINEAGE, PROTECTION AND CELESTIAL AUTHORITY IN NINTH-CENTURY JAPAN
by Copyright 2010 Hillary Eve Pedersen Submitted to the graduate degree program in Art History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
From the fourteenth through the nineteenth centuries Japanese monks created hundreds of maps to construct and locate their place in a Buddhist world. This expansively illustrated volume is the first to explore the largely unknown archive of Japanese Buddhist world maps and analyze their production, reproduction, and reception. In examining these fascinating sources of visual and material culture, author D. Max Moerman argues for an alternative history of Japanese Buddhism—one that compels us to recognize the role of the Buddhist geographic imaginary in a culture that encompassed multiple cartographic and cosmological world views.
The contents and contexts of Japanese Buddhist world maps reveal the ambivalent and shifting position of Japan in the Buddhist world, its encounter and negotiation with foreign ideas and technologies, and the possibilities for a global history of Buddhism and science. Moerman’s visual and intellectual history traces the multiple trajectories of Japanese Buddhist world maps, beginning with the earliest extant Japanese map of the world: a painting by a fourteenth-century Japanese monk charting the cosmology and geography of India and Central Asia based on an account written by a seventh-century Chinese pilgrim-monk. He goes on to discuss the cartographic inclusion and marginal position of Japan, the culture of the copy and the power of replication in Japanese Buddhism, and the transcultural processes of engagement and response to new visions of the world produced by Iberian Christians, Chinese Buddhists, and the Japanese maritime trade. Later chapters explore the transformations in the media and messages of Buddhist cartography in the age of print culture and in intellectual debates during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries over cosmology and epistemology and the polemics of Buddhist science.
The Japanese Buddhist World Map offers a wholly innovative picture of Japanese Buddhism that acknowledges the possibility of multiple and heterogeneous modernities and alternative visions of Japan and the world.
Esoteric Buddhism within the Framework of the Lotus Sutra Buddhism of Nichiren
Daigoji, located in the Yamashina area of Kyoto, is a celebrated Buddhist temple that has played an important role in Japanese history ever since its founding in 874 (Jōgan 16) by the monk Shōbō, who was later known by the honorific title Rigen Daishi. Within the Shingon tradition of Esoteric Buddhism, the temple is known as a sacred site that places great emphasis on conducting prayers for spiritual empowerment and esoteric rites in particular. The sculpture and paintings used as the chief objects of worship in those rituals along with the ritual implements have been preserved as treasures at the temple since the period of its founding in the ninth century. The Documents and Sacred Writings of Daigoji, numbering 69,378 items, has been designated a National Treasure. These items, which include records of the ritual programs, procedures and methods as well as the iconography of the objects of veneration in addition to documents demonstrating the faith of various powerful political figures, recount for us the glorious history of Daigoji. Among these National Treasures and Important Cultural Properties are found many cherished works, including documents, calligraphy and Buddhist sculpture and paintings that were sent overseas in 2016 (Heisei 28) to be displayed in China for the first time. Those exhibitions, which traced the history and art of the temple from the Heian period through modern times, were extremely well received and were viewed by so many visitors in the cities of Shanghai and Xi’an. To commemorate the exhibitions in China, exhibitions are now to be held at two venues in Japan, one in Tokyo and the other in Fukuoka, with the aim of introducing the treasures of Esoteric Buddhist art from Daigoji. The exhibitions chiefly feature Buddhist sculpture and paintings as well as valuable written works and calligraphy that have been designated National Treasures or Important Cultural Properties. These will allow visitor to trace the vicissitudes of Daigoji from the Heian through the early-modern period. In addition to the profound art that represents the Esoteric Buddhist worldview, the exhibition will also provide a precious opportunity for visitors to experience the magnificent art of Daigoji from early-modern times. On view are items associated with the famous cherry-blossoming viewing hosted by Toyotomi Hideyoshi at the temple during the Azuchi-Momoyama period, the mural-like fusuma slidingdoor paintings of the Sanbō-in cloister and the paintings of Tawaraya Sōtatsu.
A Spiritual Trip to Koyasan, The Centre of Shingon Esoteric Buddhism
Akasa, the essence of space itself, is a concept that has fascinated humans for centuries. It is a term that has deep-rooted connections in various cultural and spiritual traditions across the globe. The word “Akasa” is derived from the Sanskrit language, and it encompasses a profound and multifaceted understanding of space, encompassing both the physical and metaphysical realms. Akasa, as a notion, has captivated the human imagination and has been explored, interpreted, and revered in numerous ways.
Akasa, often referred to as “the Akasa” or simply “Akasa,” is a term that carries diverse meanings and interpretations in different cultural and philosophical contexts. While it is prominently featured in Indian and Hindu philosophy, it also finds its place in various other spiritual and metaphysical traditions worldwide. Akasa can be broadly understood as the fifth element, beyond the conventional four elements of earth (Prithvi), water (Jala), fire (Agni), and air (Vayu), as proposed in ancient Indian thought.
Akasa in Ancient Indian Philosophy:
In the rich tapestry of Indian philosophy and spirituality, Akasa occupies a significant position. It is often associated with the concept of the “Pancha Mahabhutas,” or the five great elements, which constitute the fundamental building blocks of the material world. Akasa, being the fifth element, transcends the physical realm and represents the ethereal, subtle, and all-pervading aspect of existence.
Within the framework of Indian philosophical schools, especially in Vedanta and Samkhya, Akasa is considered the substratum or background against which all other elements and phenomena manifest. It is often described as the space that accommodates all other elements and provides the canvas upon which the universe unfolds. Akasa is formless, infinite, and eternal, serving as the canvas upon which the cosmic drama of creation, preservation, and dissolution unfolds.
In Indian cosmology, Akasa is intimately connected to the concept of “Akasha Tattva,” which translates to the “essence of space.” This essence of space is not merely a physical void but is laden with metaphysical significance. It is believed to be the dwelling place of the Divine and the repository of cosmic knowledge. The Upanishads, ancient Indian texts that explore the nature of reality and spirituality, often allude to Akasa as the bridge between the physical and metaphysical realms, a conduit through which the individual soul can connect with the universal consciousness.
Akasa in Hindu Mythology and Cosmology:
In Hindu mythology and cosmology, Akasa is deeply intertwined with the narrative of creation and the divine hierarchy. It is often associated with Lord Shiva, one of the principal deities in Hinduism. Lord Shiva is sometimes depicted as “Akasha Swarupa,” which means the form of Akasa itself. This representation signifies Shiva’s transcendental nature and his role as the source and culmination of all elements, including Akasa.
The Hindu cosmology envisions the universe as a dynamic and cyclical process of creation and destruction. Akasa plays a pivotal role in this cosmic drama. It is the medium through which the Creator, often symbolized as Lord Brahma, manifests the universe. In the process of creation, Akasa represents the subtlest element from which the other four gross elements emerge. This concept is beautifully encapsulated in the following verse from the Chandogya Upanishad:
“From Akasa alone, indeed, are born both heat and the rest, names and forms, the superior and the inferior. Akasa is the ultimate end.”
This verse highlights the primacy of Akasa in the creative process and emphasizes its role as the source of all differentiation and diversity in the material world.
Akasa in Yoga and Meditation:
Akasa also has a significant presence in yogic and meditative practices. In yoga, Akasa is associated with the fifth chakra, known as the “Vishuddha Chakra” or “Throat Chakra.” This chakra is situated at the throat region and is considered the center of communication, self-expression, and spiritual purification. It is often depicted as a sixteen-petaled lotus representing the purity and clarity of speech.
Practices aimed at balancing and activating the Vishuddha Chakra often involve meditation on Akasa. Meditators may visualize a radiant, blue, or violet Akasa at the throat center, which helps enhance their communication skills, self-expression, and ability to connect with higher realms of consciousness.
Furthermore, the concept of Akasa is closely linked to the practice of “Akasha Dharana,” a form of meditation that involves focusing one’s attention on the subtlest form of Akasa as a means to transcend the limitations of the physical body and mind. This practice aims to access higher states of consciousness and ultimately attain spiritual liberation.
Akasa in Ayurveda and Healing:
Akasa also finds its place in Ayurveda, the traditional system of medicine in India. In Ayurveda, the five elements—earth, water, fire, air, and Akasa—are fundamental to understanding the constitution of individuals and the causes of diseases. Each person is believed to have a unique combination of these elements, which influences their physical and mental characteristics.
Akasa, as the element of space, is associated with the qualities of expansiveness, emptiness, and openness. When the Akasa element is balanced within the body, it contributes to a sense of spaciousness in one’s mind and emotions. However, imbalances in Akasa can manifest as mental and emotional disturbances, such as feelings of emptiness, isolation, or confusion.
Ayurvedic therapies and practices aim to restore balance to the Akasa element through diet, lifestyle, and specific healing treatments. These therapies seek to harmonize the individual with the natural world and the cosmos, recognizing that an imbalance in any of the elements can lead to physical and mental dis-ease.
Akasa in Other Cultural and Philosophical Traditions:
While Akasa holds a central place in Indian philosophy and spirituality, similar concepts can be found in various other cultural and philosophical traditions around the world. In ancient Greece, for example, the philosopher Aristotle proposed the concept of “aether” or “quintessence,” which was considered the fifth element beyond earth, water, fire, and air. Aether was believed to be a celestial substance that filled the universe, and it was associated with the stars and planets.
In Western esoteric traditions and modern metaphysical thought, Akasa is often equated with the concept of the “ether” or “cosmic ether.” This etheric substance is seen as a subtle, all-pervading energy that connects all things and serves as the medium for psychic and spiritual phenomena.
In Native American spirituality, the concept of “Great Spirit” or “Great Mystery” can be likened to Akasa in its role as the transcendent and all-encompassing reality that underlies the physical world.
Across various traditions, the idea of an all-encompassing, subtle, and spiritual dimension of existence akin to Akasa persists, albeit with different names and interpretations.
The Scientific Perspective:
While Akasa has profound spiritual and metaphysical connotations, the scientific understanding of space is quite different. In modern physics, space is conceptualized as a vacuum, a region devoid of matter and energy.
THE CONCEPT OF ĀKĀŚA IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Source: THE CONCEPT OF ĀKĀŚA IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
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Source: THE CONCEPT OF ĀKĀŚA IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Anthropic Web of the Universe: Atom and Ātman
Source: Anthropic Web of the Universe: Atom and Ātman
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Source: Anthropic Web of the Universe: Atom and Ātman
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Source: Anthropic Web of the Universe: Atom and Ātman
Source: Anthropic Web of the Universe: Atom and Ātman
Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
Source: Ether in Kant and Akasa in Prasastapada: Philosophy in comparative perspective
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Understanding Space, Time and Causality: Modern Physics and Ancient Indian Traditions
Authors B.V. Sreekantan, Sisir Roy Edition illustrated Publisher Taylor & Francis, 2019 ISBN 0429534744, 9780429534744 Length 128 pages
“IS SPACE CREATED? REFLECTIONS ON ŚAṆKARA’S PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICS.”
The relation of akasa to pratityasamutpada in Nagarjuna’s writings
By Garth Mason Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY In the subject of RELIGIOUS STUDIES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROF. M. CLASQUIN
Towards a Philosophical Reconstruction of the Dialogue between Modern Physics and Advaita Vedanta: An Inquiry into the Concepts of akasa, Vacuum and Reality
par
Jonathan Duquette Facult ́e de th ́eologie et de sciences des religions
These pr ́esent ́eea la Facult ́e des ́etudes sup ́erieures en vue de l’obtention du grade de Philosophiae Doctor (Ph.D.) en sciences des religions
The Oxford Handbook of Sound and Imagination, Volume 1
edited by Mark Grimshaw-Aagaard, Mads Walther-Hansen, Martin Knakkergaard
Pancha Bhuta Sthalam
Wikipedia
Four of these are in Tamilnadu, and one is in Andhra Pradesh. In addition to the Tillai Naṭarāja Temple in Chidambaram, the other four pancabhūtasthalas are Ekāmbareswara Temple (earth) in Kanchipuram, Jambukeswara Temple (water) in Thiruvanaikaval, Arunāchaleswara Temple (fire) in Thiruvaṇṇāmalai, and Sri Kalahasthīswara Temple (air) in Kalahasthi, Andhra Pradesh.
Khajuraho temples use the 8×8 (64) Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (left) found in Hindu temples. Above the temple’s brahma padas is a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core, typically in a circles and turning-squares concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.[31][46]
Key Terms
Temple in Man
Panch Kosha Philosphy
Triguna Philosophy
Yoga Philosophy
Seven Chakras
Great Chain of Being
Higher/Lower Levels
Hierarchy Theory
Ascent of Men
Temple of Men
Beasts – Men – Devas – Gods
Ratha in Architecture
Triratha
Panchratha
Saptaratha
Navratha
Ayatan Plan Architecture
Ekayatan
Triayatan
Panchayatan
Saptayatan
Chhadyashikhar
Shikharanvit
Valabhichhandaj
Sandhar
Prasad
Nagara Architecture
Odisha
Chandella
Solanki Maru Gurjara
Mandapa in Architecture
Ardh Mandapa
Mandapa
Maha Mandapa
Vastu Purush Mandala
Ceilings in Architecture
Shikhar (Vimana, Spire)
Temple and the Tank
Temple and the Pond
Temple and the River
Temple and the Lake
Square and Circle
Earth and Heaven
As Above, So Below
As Below, So Above
Amalaka
Kalash
Garbh Graha
Outer to Inner
Lower to Higher
Purush Sukta
Shri Sukta
Antarala
Pada Devta
Lok Pals
Dwar Pals
Dik Pals
Ayadi Calculations
Toranas
Vitana (Ceiling)
Prakash and Vimarsh
Terrestial to Celestial
Nagara (North Indian) Hindu Temple Architecture
Source: KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES/Dr. Manoj Kumar
Source: KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES/Dr. Manoj Kumar
Source: KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES/Dr. Manoj Kumar
Source: KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES/Dr. Manoj Kumar
Source: KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES/Dr. Manoj Kumar
Source: KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES/Dr. Manoj Kumar
Source: KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES/Dr. Manoj Kumar
Source: TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE
Source: Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture and Fractal Geometry – ‘Thought Behind Form’
Source: A Comparative Analysis of the Temples of Khajuraho and the Ruling Chandellas of India
Source: A Comparative Analysis of the Temples of Khajuraho and the Ruling Chandellas of India
Source: A Comparative Analysis of the Temples of Khajuraho and the Ruling Chandellas of India
Source: A Comparative Analysis of the Temples of Khajuraho and the Ruling Chandellas of India
Source: Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho, Madya Pradesh, India
Source: Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho, Madya Pradesh, India
The layout plan of Kandariya Mahadeva Temple. It uses the 64 pada grid design. Smaller Khajuraho temples use the 9, 16, 36 or 49 grid mandala plan.[42]
Khajuraho temples, almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala.[43] This design plan has three important components – Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.[44]
The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The shikhara, or spire, of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.[45]
The circle of mandala circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.[31] The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas.[43]
Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8×8 (64) padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires.[42] The primary deity or lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma padas.
Khajuraho temples use the 8×8 (64) Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (left) found in Hindu temples. Above the temple’s brahma padas is a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core, typically in a circles and turning-squares concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.[31][46]
The architecture is symbolic and reflects the central Hindu beliefs through its form, structure, and arrangement of its parts.[47] The mandapas, as well as the arts, are arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is distinctive in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose ideas.[48] This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples.[49] Various statues and panels have inscriptions. Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings, something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions.[29]
All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east side.
An illustration of Khajuraho temple Spires (Shikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and rotating-squares principle. Four spires (left) are shown above, while the inside view of one Shikara ceiling (right) shows the symmetric layout.
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire).[44] Variations in spire design come from variation in degrees turned for the squares. The temple Shikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.[31]
In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity.[31] The pillars, walls, and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life – kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This clockwise walk around is called pradakshina.[44]
Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids, and mathematical precision. This use of same underlying architectural principle is common in Hindu temples found all over India.[50] Each Khajuraho temple is distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principles in almost all Hindu temples, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”.[51]
Source: PARAMETRIZING INDIAN KARNATA-DRAVIDA TEMPLE USING GEOMETRY
Source: A REVIEW STUDY ON ARCHITECTURE OF HINDU TEMPLE
Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design known as vastu-purusha-mandala, the name of which is derived from the three vital components of the design namely Vastu meaning Vaas or a place of dwelling; Purusha, meaning the Universal principle; and Mandala meaning circle. Vastupurushamandala is a mystical diagram referred in Sanskrit as a Yantra. The symmetrical and self-repeating model of a Hindu temple demonstrated in the design is derived from the primary convictions, traditions, myths, fundamentality and mathematical standards. According to Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template for a Hindu temple is the 8×8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan also referred as Bhekapada and Ajira. The layout displays a vivid saffron centre with intersecting diagonals which according to Hindu philosophy symbolises the Purusha. The axis of the Mandir is created with the aid of the four fundamentally significant directions and thus, a perfect square is created around the axis within the available space. This square which is circumscribed by the Mandala circle and divided into perfect square grids is held sacred. On the other hand, the circle is regarded as human and worldly that can be perceived or noticed in daily life such as the Sun, Moon, rainbow, horizon or water drops. Both the square and the circle support each other. The model is usually seen in large temples while an 81 sub-square grid is observed in ceremonial temple superstructures. Each square within the main square referred as „Pada‟ symbolise a specific element that can be in the form of a deity, an apsara or a spirit. The primary or the innermost square/s of the 64 grid model called Brahma Padas is dedicated to Brahman. The Garbhagruha or centre of the house situated in the Brahma Padas houses the main deity. The outer concentric layer to Brahma Padas is the Devika Padas signifying facets of Devas or Gods which is again surrounded by the next layer, the Manusha Padas, with the ambulatory. The devotees circumambulate clockwise to perform Parikrama in the Manusha Padas with Devika Padas in the inner side and the Paishachika Padas, symbolising facets of Asuras and evils, on the outer side forming the last concentric square. The three outer Padas in larger temples generally adorn inspirational paintings, carvings and images with the wall reliefs and images of different temples depicting legends from different Hindu Epics and Vedic stories. Illustrations of artha, kama, dharma and moksha can be found in the embellished carvings and images adorning the walls, ceiling and pillars of the temples.
Source: A REVIEW STUDY ON ARCHITECTURE OF HINDU TEMPLE
Source: VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA- A HUMAN ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGNING LIVING ENVIRONMENTS
Source: Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple
Source: Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
Source: Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
Source: Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
According to Hindu philosophy, the main goal of man’s life is to achieve the ultimate liberation from the illusionary world where he suffers from his endless rebirth. Krishna says in Bhagavad Gita,9 if man worships, devotes and meditates to the manifested form of the wholeness of infinity, and sees the truth of its manifestation; he will surpass the confusion of the never-ending cycles of rebirth in this physical world, and finally will assimilate with the God. 10 Hindu calls it moksha.11 It brings the ultimate peace and harmony in man’s life. But how one, from the physical world, can practice to realize this ultimate truth of the creation? Brihatsamhita12 and Sthapatyaveda13 give the solution as the temple which should act as the microcosm of the cosmos [9]. It should be the bridge for the man of physical world to the God of divine world [10].
To connect the physical world with the divine world and to reflect the truth of creation, the layout of cosmos was copied graphically in the foundation of temple. Here, a mythical incident was interwoven where a formless being covered the sky and was, immediately, arrested down to the earth by the creator Brahma and other gods. This supernatural fact was depicted graphically by vastu purusha mandala, where vastu refers to physical environment, purusha refers to energy, power or cosmic being, and mandala is the diagram or chart. Central portion of the mandala represents the place of Brahma and other portions symbolize the other gods according to their capability. By laying down this metaphysical diagram in the foundation, various supernatural forces are captured beneath the temple whereas its centre is the source of cosmic energies. The basic shape of the vastu purusha mandala is a square which represents the earth [11]. Its four sides depict the four cardinal directions. It also symbolizes the order, the completeness of endless life and the perfectness of life and death [10]. According to Hindu philosophy, our mundane life is controlled by the number four—four castes, four stages of life, four great epochs or mahayugas, four heads of Brahma, the four Vedas etc. [12].
There are various types of vastu purusha mandala, which are nothing but the squares grids, produced from the basic shape; namely, a square which is known as sakala mandala. Each smaller square within the grid is called one pada. The number of pada may vary from 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and so on 1024, where it follows the geometric progression of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…..,32 of common ratio 2. The mandala having even numbers of pada in its grid known as yugma squares mandala whereas the mandala, having odd numbers of pada known as ayugma squares mandala. Vastu purusha mandala is also known as different distinctive names according to the numbers of pada within the grid. The mandala having 1,4,9,16,25 and 36 numbers of pada within the grid are known as sakala mandala, pechaka mandala, pitah mandala, mahapitah mandala, manduka chandita mandala and para- masayika mandala, respectively14.
Source: Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
Source: Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
Source: Maṇḍala in Architecture: Symbolism and Significance for Contemporary Design Education in India
Source: Maṇḍala in Architecture: Symbolism and Significance for Contemporary Design Education in India
Source: Revisiting the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in Hindu Temples, and Its Meanings
Source: Revisiting the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in Hindu Temples, and Its Meanings
Source: Revisiting the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in Hindu Temples, and Its Meanings
Source: Revisiting the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in Hindu Temples, and Its Meanings
Source: Role of Fractal Geometry in Indian Hindu Temple Architecture
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Source: HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE.
Types of Vastu Purush Mandala
Source: Indian Architectural Theory: Contemporary Uses of Vastu Vidya
Sakala (1 x 1) = 1 Square
Pechaka (2 x 2) = 4 Squares
Pitha (3 x 3) = 9 Squares
Mahapitha (4 x 4) = 16 Squares
Upapitha (5 x 5) = 25 Squares
Ugrapitha (6 x 6) = 36 Squares
Sthandila (7 x 7) = 49 Squares
Manduka (Chandita) (8 x 8) = 64 Squares
Paramashayika (9 x 9) = 81 Squares
Types of Ceilings (Vitana) of Temples
Source: A Comparative Analysis of the Temples of Khajuraho and the Ruling Chandellas of India
Samatala vitāna decorated with padmaśila
Ksipta vitāna of Nābhicchanda order decorated with kola courses
Ksipta vitāna of Nābhicchanda order decorated with gajatalu courses
Ksipta vitāna of Nābhicchanda order in a set of diagonally arranged squares decorated with kola courses
Ksipta vitāna of Nābhicchanda order in a set of nine arranged squares decorated with kola courses
Ksipta vitāna of Nābhicchanda order in a set of eight circles intersected by a big circle in the center
Sama-ksipta vitāna decorated with figural groups in the boxes
Karotaka of Sabhmarga order
Ksipta vitāna of Nābhicchanda order made of three diminishing squares decorated with kola courses
Questions on Relationships
(Kshetra)
What is a relationship between the Temple and the Tank (Kunda)?
What is a relationship between the Temple and the Pond (Talab)?
What is a relationship between the Temple and the River (Nadi)?
What is a relationship between the Temple and the Lake (Jheel)?
Square and Circle in a Group
Shiva temples (Squares) and Shakti Temples (Circular)
(Group of Squares and Group of Circles)
Bateswer Group of Temples + Mitawali Chausath Yogini Temple (Circular)
Khajuraho Group of Temples + Chausath Yogini Temple (Rectangular)
Bhuvneswar Group of Temples + Hirapur Chausath Yogini Temple (Circular)
Temple Architecture Canonical Texts
Source: Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India
A Comparative Analysis of the Temples of Khajuraho and the Ruling Chandellas of India
Chelsea Gill
May 2008 A Senior Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Archaeological Studies University of Wisconsin-La Crosse
TEMPLES, RITUAL, AND COSMIC SYMBOLISM IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
edited by DEENA RAGAVAN with contributions by Claus Ambos, John Baines, Gary Beckman, Matthew Canepa, Davíd Carrasco, Elizabeth Frood, Uri Gabbay, Susanne Görke, Ömür Harmanşah, Julia A. B. Hegewald, Clemente Marconi, Michael W. Meister, Tracy Miller, Richard Neer, Deena Ragavan, Betsey A. Robinson, Yorke M. Rowan, and Karl Taube
Papers from the Oriental Institute Seminar Heaven on Earth Held at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago 2–3 March 2012
“Naturalizing Buddhist Cosmology in the Temple Architecture of China: The Case of the Yicihui Pillar.”
Tracy Miller
In Heaven on Earth: Temples, Ritual, and Cosmic Symbolism in the Ancient World
(The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Seminars, No. 9), edited by Deena Ragavan, 17-39. Chicago: University of Chicago Oriental Institute, 2013.
Vastu Purusha Mandala – A human ecological framework for designing living environments.
Venugopal, Jayadevi
In Jetty, C, Chandra, B, Bhashyam, A, & Prabhakara, R (Eds.) Proceedings of International Conference on Advances in Architecture and Civil Engineering (AARCV 2012), Volume 2. Bonfring, India, pp. 870-877.
PANCHA KOSHA VIVEKA “Differentiation of the Five Sheaths”
PANCHADASHEE – 03
Composed by Sri Swami Vidyaranyaji
Reflections by SWAMI GURUBHAKTANANDA on the 32 Lectures delivered by Swami Advayanandaji, Acharya at the Chinmaya International Foundation, Veliyanad, Kerala. from April 28th 2017 – November 7th, 2017
Unit-5 Concept of Pancha Koshas, Concept of Panchmahabhutas
Issue Date: 2020 Publisher: Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi URI: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/59786 Appears in Collections: Block-2 Yogic Concepts of Health
John McKim Malville University of Colorado Boulder
August 2014 DOI:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9717-2 In book: Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (pp.1-16)
Interaction / Intersection of Menger Sponge and Apollonian Sphere in cosmic geometry produces pythagorean triples / triads.
Seven plus one spheres to triads of three.
Apollonian Gasket, Circle and Sphere Packing and Cosmic Geometry
Source: PRECISE CALCULATION OF HAUSDORFF DIMENSION OF APOLLONIAN GASKET
A transfer operator method is proposed to calculate 𝑑𝐻, the Hausdorff dimension of the Apollonian gasket. Compared with previous operator-based methods, we make two improvements in this paper. We adopt an infinite set of contractive Möbius transformations (rather than a finite set of parabolic ones) to generate the Apollonian gasket. We also apply an efficient finite matrix approximation of an infinite sum of infinite-dimensional operators. By using this method, a high precision estimate of 𝑑𝐻 is obtained:
𝑑𝐻=1.305 686 728 049 877 184 645 986 206 851 0….
Source: THE FRACTAL DIMENSION OF THE APOLLONIAN SPHERE PACKING
The fractal dimension of the Apollonian sphere packing has been computed numerically up to six trusty decimal digits. Based on the 31 944 875 541 924 spheres of radius greater than 2−19 contained in the Apollonian packing of the unit sphere, we obtained an estimate of 2.4739465, where the last digit is questionable. Two fundamentally different algorithms have been employed. Outlines of both algorithms are given.
Source: THE FRACTAL DIMENSION OF THE APOLLONIAN SPHERE PACKING
Source: What Type of Apollonian Circle Packing Will Appear?
Source: Self-similar space-filling sphere packings in three and four dimensions
Source: Self-similar space-filling sphere packings in three and four dimensions
Sapta Matrikas
Brahmi
Maheswari
Kumari
Vaishnavi
Varahi
Indrani
Chamunda
Source: Saptamatrikas in Kerala: Iconography and Distribution Pattern
In Varahapurana the Devi, Vaishnavi in account of the creation of the matrika, is doing asceticism on mount Mandara. At one point she losses her concentration. From her disgraced mind, several beautiful attendants were created. They later became Devi’s helpmates on the battlefield when she fights the demon. Although the Matrikas are described as lovely in this account, it is important to note that they are born when Devi losses control of her concentration. This suggests that the matrikas are essentially of uncontrolled natures. Born from lack of mental control, they lack control themselves. Varahapurana relates them to vices or inauspicious emotions; Brahmi of Mada, Maheswari of Krodha, Kumari of Moha, Vaishnavi of Lobha, Indrani of Matsarya, Varahi of Asuya and Chamunda of Paisunya.
Source: Saptamatrikas in Kerala: Iconography and Distribution Pattern
The follower of Tantrasara has an esoteric interpretation of the seven matrikas. According to them, Brahmi represents the primordial Nada, the energy in which even the first throb has not yet appeared. This is the manifest sound, the origin of all creation. It is the same substance or energy represented by the pranava. When Brahmi creates the universe, the power of Vaishnavi gives definite shape. The symmetry, beauty, organization and order in the universe are the work of Vaishnavi. Maheswari stands for the power that gives individuality to the created beings. She resides in the hearts of all and makes them play, as dolls mounted on a machine. Kumari represents the ever present force of aspiration of the evolving soul. She is ‘Guruguha’, the Guru in guha (the cave of the heart, the intellect). Varahi is the all-consuming power of assimilation and enjoyment. Because of her, all living beings get their food and enjoyments. Indrani symbolizes the terrible power that destroys all that opposes the cosmic law. Chamunda is the force of concentrated awareness, the spiritual awakening in the heart that devours that ceaseless activity of the immature mind and uplifts it to the highest level (Harshananda 1981.95-99).
Source: Saptamatrikas in Kerala: Iconography and Distribution Pattern
Source: Saptamatrikas in Kerala: Iconography and Distribution Pattern
Source: Matrikas/Siddha Pedia
Source: The Seven Ancient Mothers
The Pythagoreans considered the figure seven as the image and model of the divine order and harmony in nature. As the harmony of cosmic sound takes place on the space between the seven planets, the harmony of audible sound takes place on a smaller plane within the musical scale of the seven tones. Therefore, the syrinx of the nature god Pan consists of seven pipes, and the lyre of Apollo (the god of music) consists of seven strings. As the number seven is a union between the number three (the symbol of the divine triad) and of four (the symbol of the cosmic forces or elements), the number seven points out symbolically to the union of the divine with the universe.
Pierre Auclair∗ Cosmology, Universe and Relativity at Louvain (CURL), Institute of Mathematics and Physics, University of Louvain, 2 Chemin du Cyclotron, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium (Dated: November 15, 2022)
Estimate for the fractal dimension of the Apollonian gasket in d dimensions
R. S. Farr* Unilever R&D, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, AT3133 Vlaardingen, The Netherlands and The London Institute for Mathematical Sciences, 22 S. Audley Street, Mayfair, London, United Kingdom
E. Griffiths
297 Sandy Bay Road, Sandy Bay, Tasmania, Australia
A Study of the Sapta Matrikas’ Origins and Evolution: From the Perspectives of the Art and Literature of Western India Dating from B.C. 1400 to 500 A.D.
Rebecca Sholes 1982
Mother Goddess in Central India
Om Prakash Misra Agam Kala Prakashan, 1985
The Little Goddesses (mātrikās)
K. C. Aryan Rekhā, 1980
The Iconography of the Saptamatrikas: Seven Hindu Goddesses of Spiritual Transformation
Katherine Anne Harper E. Mellen Press, 1989
ISBNS 9780889460614, 0889460612 OCLC ocm19921123
Saptamātr̥kā Worship and Sculptures: An Iconological Interpretation of Conflicts and Resolutions in the Storied Brāhmanical Icons
Self-similar space-filling sphere packings in three and four dimensions *
D. V. St ̈ager 1 , ∗ and H. J. Herrmann 1, 2 , † 1 Computational Physics for Engineering Materials, IfB, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland 2 Departamento de F ́ısica, Universidade Federal do Cear ́a, 60451-970 Fortaleza, Ceara ́, Brazil
Indira’s Pearls: Apollonian Gasket, Circle and Sphere Packing
Source: Matrikas
Key Terms
Circle Packing
Disk Packing
Sphere Packing
Indira’s Net
Indira’s Pearls
Apollonian Gasket
Fractals
Square and Circle
Circular Temple
Earth and Heaven
64 Yogini Hindu Shakti Temples
64 Bhairav
64 Yogini
7 Matrikas
Mandala
Curvilinear Sierpinski Gasket
Poincare Disc
Jagannath Puri, Odisha
Bhuvneswar, Odisha
Konark, Odisha
Non Euclidian Geometry
Euclidian Geometry
Fractal Geometry
Sacred Geometry
Hyperbolic Geometry
1, 2, 3 where is the 4th
1 2 3 4
Fifth and Fourth in Music Theory
Fractals, Circle, and Sphere Packing
Source: Circle Packing Explorations
Source: Circle Packing Explorations
Source: On a Diophantine Equation That Generates AllIntegral Apollonian Gaskets
Source:
Source: Recursive Apollonian Gasket
Source: Recursive Apollonian Gasket
Source: Recursive Apollonian Gasket
Source: Recursive Apollonian Gasket
Source: Recursive Apollonian Gasket
Source: On the cover: Apollonian packing
What can you do with this space? So asks Andrew Stacey. ‘Fill it’ is the prompt reply, but fill it with what? Maybe like Andrew you want to use a single curve, but I want to use circles. If you do this in the way shown above in blue, the result is called an Apollonian packing, a variant of which can be seen on the cover of this issue.
Here we shall explore the history of this entrancing object, which spans over 2000 years, and percolates into a surprising variety of mathematical disciplines. Starting in the familiar world of Euclidean geometry, Apollonian packings extend into fractal geometry and measure theory; Möbius transformations and the hyperbolic plane; and then on into the distant reaches of geometric group theory, number theory, orbital mechanics, and even ship navigation.
At times we may wonder off into thickets of more obscure mathematics, so those readers who get lost should feel free to skip ahead to the next section.
Apollonius of Perga
Apollonius (c 230 BC) was a Hellenistic mathematician, considered one of the greatest after Euclid and Archimedes. Perhaps his most important work was his eight book treaties Κωνικα on conic sections—once lost to European civilisation, but fortuitously preserved by the more enlightened Middle Eastern scholars and later reintroduced by Edmund Halley in 1710. The same unfortunately cannot be said of Έπαφαι (De Tractionibus or Tangencies). Although now lost, we have accounts of the work from other ancient authors, particularly in the writings of Pappus of Alexandria. In it, Apollonius posed and solved the following problem.
Problem: Given three geometric objects in the plane (points, lines, and/or circles), find all circles which meet all three simultaneously (ie which pass through any points, and are tangent to any lines or circles).
So for example, given three points which don’t lie on the same line, there is exactly one circle which passes through all three. The case which interests us at present is when we are given three circles, each of which is tangent to the other two. In the very special case that all three are tangent at the same point there are infinitely many circles tangent to all three. Usually, however, the circles will be pairwise tangent at three distinct points, in which case there are exactly two other circles tangent to all three simultaneously.
Given three mutually tangent circles (black) there are usually exactly two others (blue) tangent to all three.
This is as far as Apollonius went; the next step would not be taken until 1643, when René Descartes discovered a formula for the size of the two tangent circles, which he wrote in a letter to Princess Elizabeth of the Palatinate. The same formula was later rediscovered by Frederick Soddy and published as a poem in Nature in 1936.
The size of a circle is determined by its radius rr. If rr is small, the circle will be small, but it will also be very curved. We can define the curvature of the circle to be k=1/rk=1/r. Descartes showed that if three given circles are mutually tangent at three distinct points, and have curvatures k1k1, k2k2, and k3k3, then a fourth circle which is tangent to all three has curvature k4k4 satisfying
For technical algebraic reasons, sometimes this equation gives negative values for the curvature k4k4, which we can interpret as corresponding to a circle with curvature |k||k|which contains the other circles in its interior. Notice that this equation is quadratic in the variable k4k4, so there are two solutions; these will correspond to the two possibilities for the fourth circle found by Apollonius.
Apollonian packings
So far we have constructed at most 5 mutually tangent circles. The step to infinity may seem obvious, but took another 63 years and some 1900 years after Apollonius. The earliest description seems to appear in a letter from Leibniz to des Bosses (11 March 1706):
Imagine a circle; in it draw three other circles that are the same size and as large as possible, and in any new circle and in the space between circles again draw the three largest circles of the same size that are possible. Imagine proceeding to infinity in this way…
A finite iteration of a nested Apollonian packing similar to the one described by Leibniz. Image: adapted from Todd Stedl, CC BY-SA 4.0
What Leibniz is describing is in fact a nested Apollonian packing, since at each step he fills in every circle as well as the gaps between circles. This early description makes the nested Apollonian packing one of the first fractals, although it wasn’t studied properly until mathematicians like Cantor, Weierstrass, von Koch, and Sierpinski started discovering other fractals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This may be because Leibniz was not interested in the mathematical construction, but rather was trying to draw an analogy to argue against the existence in infinitesimals in nature.
Henceforth we shall only consider the un-nested Apollonian packing. As a fractal, it has a number of interesting properties: it is a set of measure 0, which means that if you tried to make it by starting with a disc of metal, and then drilled out infinitely many ever smaller holes (and if you ignore that metal is made out of atoms), then you would finish up with a single piece of metal (you haven’t removed everything), but nevertheless with exactly 0 mass. It has fractal dimension approximately 1.30568, which means that mathematically it lives somewhere between a 1D curve and a 2D area. Finally, if you look at just the portion of an Apollonian packing which lies in the triangular region between three tangent circles, this is homeomorphic to the Sierpinski triangle, which means that one can be bent and stretched to look like the other.
A portion of an Apollonian packing is homeomorphic to the Sierpinski triangle—just squash all of the circles to make them triangular. Images: adapted from Todd Stedl, CC BY-SA 4.0 and Beojan Stanislaus, CC BY-SA 3.0.
There is a curious combinatorial consequence of Descartes’ formula for Apollonian packings. If we start with three mutually tangent circles with curvatures k1k1, k2k2, and k3k3, we can solve (1)(1) to find that the curvatures k+4k4+ and k−4k4− of the other two circles are
The integral Apollonian packing starting with curvatures -10, 18, 23, and 27. Image: adapted from Todd Stedl, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Now suppose we start constructing an Apollonian packing by drawing four mutually tangent circles whose curvatures k1k1, k2k2, k3k3, and k+4k4+ are all integers. From equation (2)(2) it follows that 2√k1k2+k2k3+k3k12k1k2+k2k3+k3k1 must be an integer since k+4k4+ is an integer, and so k−4k4− is also an integer. Now we can build the packing by filling in a fifth circle wherever we see four mutually tangent circles. By the observation above, if the four circles have integer curvatures, the fifth circle will also have integer curvature. Inductively therefore we will end up with an Apollonian packing consisting of infinitely many tangent circles, all of which have integer curvatures.
Hyperbolic geometry
All these scorpions have the same hyperbolic size.
If you have some familiarity with non-Euclidean geometry, Apollonian packings may remind you of the Poincaré model of the hyperbolic plane. The hyperbolic plane H2H2 is a 2D surface on which we can do geometry just like we can on the flat Euclidean plane. Whereas a sphere has constant positive curvature (it curves the same way in all directions), and the Euclidean plane has constant zero curvature (it’s flat), H2H2 is an infinite surface which has constant negative curvature, which means that at every point it curves in the same way as a Pringle. This negative curvature makes the surface crinkle up on itself more and more as you move out towards infinity, which is inconvenient when we try to work with it. Usually then we represent it on a flat surface so we can draw pictures of it in magazines and the like. One way to do this is with the Poincaré model. This views the hyperbolic plane as a disc. In order to fit the whole infinity of H2H2 into a finite disc, we have to shrink distances as we move out towards the edge of the disc. Using this skewed way of measuring distances, the circular edge of the disc is infinitely far away from its centre.
We can think of an Apollonian packing as living in the Poincaré disc, with the outermost circle of the packing as the boundary circle of H2H2. Then the circles in the packing which are not tangent to this boundary are also circles in the strange hyperbolic way of measuring distance, that is, all points are equidistant from some other point in the plane—the circle’s hyperbolic centre. Circles in the packing which are tangent to the boundary are called horocycles (in Greek this literally means border circle), which are circles with infinite radius in the hyperbolic metric. Horocycles have no analogue in the Euclidean plane.
Something interesting happens when we see what an Apollonian packing looks like in the upper half-plane (UHP) model for H2H2. This model is similar to the Poincaré model, but instead of using a disc, we use the half-plane above the xx-axis {(x,y)∈R2:y>0}{(x,y)∈R2:y>0}, where the xx-axis behaves like the boundary circle and should be thought of as at infinity. There is a problem, in that in the Poincaré disc, the boundary of H2H2 was a circle, and so it closed up on itself. In the UHP, the boundary is a line which doesn’t close up on itself, but these are supposed to be models for the same thing. To fix this, we imagine there is a point at infinity ∞∞ which joins up the two ends of the boundary to form an infinite diameter circle.
If we start with any Apollonian packing living in the Poincaré disc, there is a map from the disc to the UHP preserving hyperbolic distances, under which the outer circle of the packing becomes the xx-axis (together with the point at infinity), and exactly one of the horocycles (one of the circles tangent to the outer circle in the packing) becomes the horizontal line y=1y=1. All other circles and horocycles in the packing are sent to circles which are tangent to each other as before, but are now sandwiched between the lines y=0y=0 and y=1y=1.
If we focus on just those circles which meet the xx-axis we get what are called Ford circles. Remarkably each of these circles is tangent to the xx-axis at a rational number p/qp/q, and has radius 1/2q21/2q2. Moreover every rational number is the point of tangency of one of the circles (see below). Now some magic happens: suppose the Ford circles at a/ba/b and c/dc/d are tangent to each other, then there is a unique circle sandwiched between these two circles and the xx-axis. The rational point at which this circle meets the xx-axis is given by the Farey sum of a/ba/b and c/dc/d
ab⊕cd=a+bc+dab⊕cd=a+bc+d
Note that for this to be well-defined, a/ba/b and c/dc/d must be written in their simplest form. This Farey sum, and the associated Farey sequences FnFn you get by looking at all rational numbers between 0 and 1 which can be written as a fraction with denominator at most nn, turn up in several places across number theory. These include rational approximation of irrational numbers and the Riemann Hypothesis.
Möbius transformations
If you haven’t seen hyperbolic geometry before, you may wonder how we can map the Poincaré disc model to the UHP model, and in such a way that the strange distance measure in the two models is preserved—for a start one is a finite region while the other is an infinite half-plane. The answer is to view both models as living inside the complex plane CC (or more accurately the extended complex plane ˆC=C∪{∞}C^=C∪{∞}): the Poincaré disc is the unit disc {z∈C:|z|<1}{z∈C:|z|<1}, and the UHP is the region above the real axis {z∈C:{z∈C: Im(z)>0}(z)>0}. Then a function like
z↦−iz+1z−1=−iz−iz−1(3)(3)z↦−iz+1z−1=−iz−iz−1
will do the trick. This function is an example of a Möbius transformation, which in general is a complex function of the form
z↦az+bbz+dz↦az+bbz+d
were we require ad−bc≠0ad−bc≠0 so that this function is invertible. The function (3)(3) sends the unit disc to the UHP, but it is not the only Möbius transformation which does this. In fact there are infinitely many such functions, all of which preserve the hyperbolic metric. In the previous section I claimed that starting with any Apollonian packing, we could choose one of these Möbius transformations such that the image had a very specific form, sandwiched between the lines Im(z)=0(z)=0 and Im(z)=1(z)=1.
An exercise: If you have seen Möbius transformations before, you may wish to try and prove that the purported mapping exists yourself. (Hint: remember that Möbius transformations send circles and lines to circles and lines, and are completely determined by their image on 3 distinct points.)
The upshot of this is that all Apollonian packings are the same in the hyperbolic plane, because they can all be mapped to the same packing by (invertible) functions which preserve hyperbolic distance. Once we have started thinking about the Apollonian packing living in the complex plane, the whole world of complex functions is open to us, and we can start to do crazy things. If we don’t restrict ourselves to just Möbius transformations, but see what happens when we apply holomorphic or anti-holomorphic functions to the packing (these are complex functions with a good notion of derivative in the sense of calculus, which in particular have the property that they preserve angles between intersecting curves), we can get some very pretty designs. We need not even require (anti-)holomorphicity. The patterns featured on the front and back covers were drawn in this way.
Beyond the packing
Let us return to Apollonius of Perga. Remember that his treaties Έπαφαι, where he stated and solved the problem of finding tangent circles, is lost to history—how then do we know what he proved and how? The answer is that we don’t. The only record we have appears in the writings of Pappus of Alexandria, who lived some 400 years after Apollonius, but who references many of Apollonius’ works, including six which are no longer extant. All he says of Tangencies is the general problem which Apollonius was interested in, and that he solved it by solving many simple special cases and working up from there.
The first person to reprove Apollonius’ results in ‘modern’ times was Adriaan van Roomen in 1596. His solution, however, does not use ruler and compass constructions, so cannot have been the one Apollonius used. The result was later proved using methods available to Apollonius, and in the way described by Pappus, by van Roomen’s friend François Viéte.
A ship’s location determined by its distance from three points.
The method of Viéte was later reworked and simplified by several mathematicians, including Isaac Newton in his Principia. Newton related the position of the centre of the fourth circle to its distance from the centres of the three circles to which it is supposed to be tangent. This is called hyperbolic positioning or trilateration. Newton used this viewpoint to describe the orbits of planets in the solar system, but it can also be used to help navigate ships, and to locate the source of a signal based on the different times the signal is received at three different locations. In the first world war this was used to locate artillery based on when shots were heard. This is also how modern GPS works (not by triangulation as is commonly believed).
So this 2000-year-old problem in abstract geometry turned out to have extremely useful applications in the real world. The Apollonian packing also shows up in lots of different areas of mathematics. For example, Ford circles inspired the Hardy–Littlewood circle method, an important tool in analytic number theory which was used to solve Waring’s Problem: for an integer kk, can every integer be written as a sum of at most nn kkth powers for some value of nn? This is true: for example, every integer is the sum of 4 squares, 9 cubes, 19 fourth powers, and so on. In 2013, Harald Helfgott used the circle method to prove the weak Goldbach conjecture: every odd number greater than 5 is the sum of 3 primes.
To infinity
As a final application, I am a geometric group theorist, and I cannot help but talk about one place the Apollonian packing shows up in my field. Be warned: there is definitely some advanced maths coming up, but if you don’t mind skipping over some of the details, there are some very pretty pictures to make it worthwhile.
It turns out that the extended complex plane ˆCC^ can be thought of as the boundary of 3 dimensional hyperbolic space H3H3. If we model H3H3 as the upper half-space {(x,y,z)∈R3∣z≥0}∪{∞}{(x,y,z)∈R3∣z≥0}∪{∞} then ˆCC^ is identified with the plane {(x,y,z)∈R3∣z=0}∪{∞}{(x,y,z)∈R3∣z=0}∪{∞}. When Möbius transformations act on ˆCC^, they also act on the whole of H3H3, and preserve hyperbolic distance. If we start by choosing just a few Möbius transformations, these generate a group which acts on H3H3. In doing so, the group creates a pattern on the complex plane called its limit set. This is a picture of how the group acts ‘at infinity’. Choosing the Möbius transformations carefully gives a group whose limit set is precisely the Apollonian packing.
A valid arrangement of circles, with their interiors shaded. Note that the straight line is an infinite radius circle through ∞∞, so it still counts.
Let’s be a bit more precise; pick a point p∈ˆCp∈C^ and choose gg pairs of circles (C+i,C−i)gi=1(Ci+,Ci−)i=1g, each of which doesn’t intersect pp. Each circle cuts ˆCC^ into two regions, call the region containing pp the exterior of that circle, and the complementary region the circle’s interior. We also want to arrange things so that no two circles have overlapping interiors (although two circles are allowed to be tangent). Next, for each pair of circles (C+i,C−i)(Ci+,Ci−) choose a Möbius transformation mimiwhich maps C+iCi+ to C−iCi− and which sends the interior of C+iCi+ to the exterior of C−iCi−. The group G=⟨m1,…,mg⟩G=⟨m1,…,mg⟩ generated by these transformations is called a (classical) Schottky group and it acts as a subgroup of the group of isometries of H3H3. Since we chose the circles to have non-overlapping interiors, we can use the delightfully named ‘Ping-Pong Lemma’ to prove that GG is abstractly isomorphic to the free group on gggenerators.
A packing with the four starting circles emphasised in black, and the Schottky group generators shown in pink and blue.
So how do we get a Schottky group whose limit set is the Apollonian packing? We can cheat slightly by working backwards; starting off with the picture we want to create, then we will choose the pairs of circles in the right way. Remember that one way we thought about constructing the Apollonian packing was to start off with four mutually tangent circles and then inductively draw the fifth circle wherever we can. Our strategy will be to choose Möbius transformations which do the same thing. We are helped by the following curious fact which you may want to try and prove yourself (again using Möbius transformations): given any three mutually tangent circles, there is a unique circle (possibly through ∞∞) which passes through all three circles at right angles. Given the four initial circles, there are (43)=4(43)=4 triples of mutually tangent circles, so we let C±1C1± and C±2C2± be the four circles orthogonal to each of these triples, as shown on the left. The corresponding Möbius transformations are :
The limit set of G=⟨m1,m2⟩G=⟨m1,m2⟩ is indeed the Apollonian packing we started with. If we perturb the starting Möbius transformations just slightly by varying the matrix entries (while being careful to ensure that the resulting group acts nicely on H3H3), we get a group whose limit set is a twisted Apollonian packing.
The limit sets of a one parameter family of groups which contains the Schottky group GG. Click the image to view a higher quality version.
Even though some of these perturbed limit sets look like they are still made up more or less of circles, they are in fact made up of a single continuous closed curve which is fractal, and does not intersect itself anywhere. They are examples of Jordan curves and illustrate why the Jordan Curve Theorem is so difficult to prove despite being ‘obvious’. Playing around more with different choices of Möbius generators we can produce even more beautiful examples of fractal limit sets; below are just a few to finish off. If you want to learn more about Schottky groups, their limit sets, and how to draw these pictures, I highly recommend the book Indra’s pearls: the vision of Felix Klein. It is the basis of this final section of this article, and gives details on exactly how you can draw these and many other pictures yourself.
David Sheard
Source: The Dual Language of Geometry in Gothic Architecture: The Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Dialogue of Fractal Geometry
Source: The Dual Language of Geometry in Gothic Architecture: The Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Dialogue of Fractal Geometry
Source: The Dual Language of Geometry in Gothic Architecture: The Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Dialogue of Fractal Geometry
Source: The Dual Language of Geometry in Gothic Architecture: The Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Dialogue of Fractal Geometry
Varanasi is located in such a way that the river flows from south to north.
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White Horse Temple, Luoyang, Henan
Buddha Statues in Maiji Caves, Tianshui
Eastern Han Dynasty – Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 – 420): Buddhism was introduced to China during this period. The early Chinese Buddhist temples followed Indian style, which set the stupa as its center. They once had a traditional Chinese name – Ci (ancestral temple) and the number was very limited. 
Mahavihara_©https://www.insightsonindia.com/indian-heritage-culture/architecture/buddhist-architecture/
Stupas_©https://www.insightsonindia.com/indian-heritage-culture/architecture/buddhist-architecture/
Amaravati stupa_©https://www.insightsonindia.com/indian-heritage-culture/architecture/buddhist-architecture/
Sirpur in Chhattisgarh_©https://www.insightsonindia.com/indian-heritage-culture/architecture/buddhist-architecture/
Chaityas_©https://www.insightsonindia.com/indian-heritage-culture/architecture/buddhist-architecture/
@法门寺 (famensi.com)
@牛首山风景区 (niushoushan.net)
Viewpoints which Matter 
